Intrinsic motivation in the study of artificial intelligence and robotics is a mechanism for enabling artificial agents (including robots) to exhibit inherently rewarding behaviors such as exploration and curiosity, grouped under the same term in the study of psychology. Psychologists consider intrinsic motivation in humans to be the drive to perform an activity for inherent satisfaction – just for the fun or challenge of it.[rx]
Extrinsic motivation is reward-driven behavior. It’s a type of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a form of behavior modification that uses rewards or punishments to increase or decrease the likelihood that specific behaviors will recur. In extrinsic motivation, rewards or other incentives — like praise, fame, or money — are used as motivation for specific activities. Unlike intrinsic motivation, external factors drive this form of motivation.
Other tasks can make you want to curl up in bed, procrastinate on Netflix, or avoid them at all costs until you’re finally forced to get on with it.
The reality is, that some activities will always feel like a chore. But sadly, we still need to motivate ourselves to do things that are boring, effortful, or lacking in pleasure. This is where extrinsic motivation comes in.
Although some forms of extrinsic motivation have a poor reputation, more autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation are valuable for energizing us to do things we don’t enjoy.
In this article, we delve into what extrinsic motivation is, discuss everyday examples, and suggest strategies to help you cultivate more autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation.
What Is Extrinsic Motivation in Psychology?
Motivation is the drive to act; it propels us to be creative, learn new skills, and persevere with challenging tasks (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Although motivation is essential for helping us achieve our goals, it’s not always easy to come by.
Some people are naturally more motivated than others, and the strength of our motivation can change from day to day (Ryan & Deci, 2020). We experience motivation from different sources and are compelled to do things for instrumental reasons and because we simply enjoy doing them (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Extrinsic motivation represents our drive to engage in an activity to gain rewards or avoid punishments. In other words, we are motivated by the instrumental value of an activity; it is a means to an end (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Some people are fundamentally more motivated by extrinsic rewards. People who have extrinsic aspirations see financial wealth, physical attractiveness, and recognition or fame as more important or worthy goals in their life (Deci, Olafsen, & Ryan, 2017).
Whereas, goals in the areas of personal development, community, and meaningful relationships fall into the category of intrinsic aspirations, which are more likely to predict positive outcomes such as job satisfaction and wellbeing (Deci et al., 2017).
Four Types Of Extrinsic Motivation
According to Self-Determination Theory, the type of extrinsic motivation is different when the contextual factors are different.
Therefore, even when a person does not have the intrinsic desire, you can still motivate them effectively, knowing which type of extrinsic motivation is at play
Here are the four different types of extrinsic motivation
1. EXTERNAL REGULATION
External regulation means you do something to satisfy an external demand or receive external incentives.
An example would be a student who studies hard to get good grades to receive material rewards from his parents.
Although the behavior is intentional, it is controlled by an external source. Then this action is externally regulated.
A person experiences an externally regulated behavior as controlled by external pressure rather than autonomous.
External regulation is the least desirable type of motivation and is typically used to contrast with intrinsic motivation.
2. INTROJECTED REGULATION
Introjection means taking in the cause of doing something but not fully accepting it.
An example would be a student who spends lots of time practicing piano for a recital because she believes if she doesn’t play well, others will look down on her.
This type of regulation is still perceived as controlled because introjected behavior is performed due to internal pressure to
- reduce guilt or anxiety,
- enhance ego or pride, or
- maintain self-esteem or feeling of self-worth
Although the person has accepted the goal of the activity as necessary, and the intention is internal (psychological), it is still not experienced as a “free choice.”
Introjected motivation is still not a desired type of motivation because the action is controlled or coerced by internal contingencies rather than being self-directed.
3. REGULATION THROUGH IDENTIFICATION
This is a less controlling form of extrinsic motivation.
Identification means the person consciously values a goal and believes the activity is personally important. They don’t do it simply because they feel they should.
An example would be a student who studies very hard for the SAT exam because getting into college is important to him. Getting into college is a self-selected goal. Even though the behavior is extrinsically motivated, it is still relatively autonomous.
It would be different if a student does it because they think they “should” go to college like everyone else and will feel like a failure otherwise (introjected regulation), or because their parents are pressuring them to do so (external regulation).
4. INTEGRATED REGULATION
Integration occurs when one has fully taken in the reason for action, i.e., a person has examined the cause and found it compatible with their own values and needs. Then the action becomes self-initiated. It is autonomous and not controlled by external motivators.
Despite being extrinsic, integrated motivation shares many similar qualities as intrinsic motivation and is the best type of extrinsic motivation. Some researchers even refer to integrated regulation as intrinsic because the person has completely internalized the extrinsic cause into their values.
Self-Determination Theory & Extrinsic Motivation
The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) was first established over 20 years ago and is a widely used theoretical framework for understanding human motivation across education, work, sports, and healthcare settings (Deci et al., 2017).
At the heart of it, the SDT is an ‘organismic’ theory; a key premise being that people have a natural tendency toward growth and progression. To develop ourselves, we must seek out learning opportunities, competence, and relationships with others (Ryan & Deci, 2020).
But, that’s not all. The SDT assumes that the systems and organizations that people work and live within need to be supportive of their needs to allow motivation to thrive (Ryan & Deci, 2020).
Autonomous versus controlled
A critical point made in the SDT is the difference between autonomous extrinsic motivation and controlled extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
With controlled motivation, people are likely to feel pressured, controlled, or compelled into doing something. In contrast, with autonomous motivation, there is an element of self-endorsement or “getting on board” with the activity.
We perceive our actions to be voluntary and congruent with what we want or value (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Unsurprisingly, more autonomous forms of motivation lead to better wellbeing and performance outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
To facilitate more autonomous forms of motivation, the SDT proposes that three basic needs must be met (Ryan & Deci, 2020):
- Autonomy: to feel self-determined and have a sense of agency over our actions
- Competence: an ability to do things effectively – a sense of mastery
- Relatedness: our connections with others and a sense of belonging to a group, community, or organization
Blocking or squashing any of these basic needs is likely to create a motivational bottleneck. In support of the SDT, greater satisfaction of basic needs leads to more autonomous motivation and effort expenditure at work (De Cooman, Stynen, Van den Broeck, Sels, & De Witte, 2013), enhanced enjoyment of work (Andreassen, Hetland, & Pallesen, 2010) and less exhaustion at work (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte, & Lens, 2008).
Types of models
Ouedeyer and Kaplan have made a substantial contribution to the study of intrinsic motivation. They define intrinsic motivation based on Berlyne’s theory,[rx] and divide approaches to the implementation of intrinsic motivation into three categories that broadly follow the roots in psychology: “knowledge-based models”, “competence-based models” and “morphological models”.[rx] Knowledge-based models are further subdivided into “information-theoretic” and “predictive”.[rx] Baldassare and Mirolli present a similar typology, differentiating knowledge-based models between prediction-based and novelty-based.[rx]
Information-theoretic intrinsic motivation
The quantification of prediction and novelty to drive behaviour is generally enabled through the application of information-theoretic models, where agent state and strategy (policy) over time are represented by probability distributions describing a markov decision process and the cycle of perception and action treated as an information channel. These approaches claim biological feasibility as part of a family of bayesian approaches to brain function. The main criticism and difficulty of these models is the intractability of computing probability distributions over large discrete or continuous state spaces.[rx] Nonetheless a considerable body of work has built up modeling the flow of information around the sensorimotor cycle, leading to de facto reward functions derived from the reduction of uncertainty, including most notably active inference, but also infotaxis, predictive information, and empowerment.[rx]
Competence-based models
Steels’ autotelic principle [rx] is an attempt to formalise flow (psychology).
Achievement, affiliation and power model
Other intrinsic motives that have been modelled computationally include achievement, affiliation and power motivation.[rx] These motives can be implemented as functions of probability of success or incentive. Populations of agents can include individuals with different profiles of achievement, affiliation and power motivation, modelling population diversity and explaining why different individuals take different actions when faced with the same situation.
4 Factors of Extrinsic Motivation
Early theories of motivation typically understood motivation as a singular concept that varied only in amount, whereas the SDT was the first to illuminate the different types of motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
The SDT categorizes extrinsic motivation into four subtypes (Ryan & Deci, 2020):
- External regulation – seeing the cause of behavior as mostly external; the lowest level of autonomy; motivated to comply based on external rewards and punishments
- Introjection regulation – seeing the cause of behavior as somewhat external; there is some ego-involvement (e.g., self-esteem is affected by the outcome); an element of seeking validation from ourselves or others
- Identification – seeing the cause of behavior as somewhat internal; consciously assessing tasks or goals to carry personal value; feeling autonomy and volition
- Integration – the highest level of autonomy; seeing the cause of behavior as internal; consciously identifying and internalizing the value of tasks or goals; seeing tasks or goals as consistent with personal values and interests
The key differences between the subtypes are
i) How much we internalize the value of a task we don’t find intrinsically motivating
ii) How much we feel we are in the driver’s seat when carrying out certain behaviors (Ryan & Deci, 2020)
Even though autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation look similar to intrinsic motivation, there’s an important difference. Intrinsic motivation is fueled by genuine enjoyment or interest in the activity or goal; autonomous extrinsic motivation is driven by the value we give to an activity (Ryan & Deci, 2020).
We are complex creatures, and our motivational drives are not always limited to one type. The SDT acknowledges that people can be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated, and may experience different subtypes of extrinsic motivation at the same time (Ryan & Deci, 2020).
Other research suggests that even when people are intrinsically motivated, it’s impossible to be completely unaware of the consequences of their behavior (Covington & Müeller, 2001). So, although pure enjoyment may be the overriding source of motivation to carry out a task, we can’t rule out the presence of extrinsic motivators that may also be at play (Covington & Müeller, 2001).
3 Real-Life Examples of Extrinsic Motivation
We’re likely to view a task as more worthy of our time if we can identify and internalize its value (Ryan & Deci, 2020). The next few examples show the difference between controlled and autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation, and how they might play out in everyday scenarios.
Cleaning the bathroom
Your friends are visiting this weekend, and the bathroom seriously needs a clean. Your initial source of motivation may be the fear of judgment from your friends as they cast their eyes over your grubby facilities (if you possess intrinsic motivation for cleaning, you’ve hit the jackpot).
You can view the torturous act of cleaning as a burden you will forever despise (‘controlled’ extrinsic motivation). Or, you can change your attitude and see cleaning as an instrumentally valuable task. Creating a clean space to bathe is a form of self-care you value (‘autonomous’ motivation). Even though a clean bathroom may also be more pleasing to your friends, that’s just a bonus.
Work meetings
Work meetings can be a slog, especially if you’ve got deadlines and emails to respond to. If the sole value of attending a meeting is to avoid getting yelled at by your superior, you’re likely to feel like a victim, dragged to a tedious and time-consuming fate (‘controlled’ extrinsic motivation).
However, you may see instrumental value if you connect with your teammates during the meeting. If social connection is something you inherently value, you’ll feel your attendance is a choice (‘autonomous’ extrinsic motivation). The meeting itself is still not enjoyable, but it is a handy means to chat with your colleagues during work time.
Learning to drive
Learning to drive is a complex task with an overwhelming amount of information to take in right at the start. For some, the act of learning to drive is enjoyable, but for many, it is very stressful.
That said, being able to drive a car may be very important to you, as you can be more independent. If you’re able to internalize the value of this reward as meaningful to you, you’re more likely to feel like you’re actively choosing to learn. As you move closer to getting your license, the challenging elements of driving will be outweighed by the increases in positive emotions and well-being.
Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation: Advantages & Disadvantages
Intrinsic motivation is the gold dust of motivation.
When we’re intrinsically motivated, we don’t need to be enticed by the dangling carrot or threatened by the discipline of the stick. We do something for the joy of the process itself (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Intrinsic motivation is the basis for curiosity, learning, and growth, which makes it pretty important for human development (Ryan & Deci, 2020). If we are only motivated by external rewards, we are less likely to explore new activities or acquire new knowledge or skills that serve no instrumental purpose (Ryan & Deci, 2020).
The problem is, we can’t always rely on intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is extremely personal and limited in most situations. Both at home and work, we often need to tap into extrinsic motivation to get the job done.
Extrinsic motivation becomes more relevant as we get older and have more social responsibilities that limit our ability to do things we find inherently enjoyable (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Quality versus quantity
There is an undeniable quality versus quantity trade-off when it comes to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. A meta-analysis by Cerasoli, Nicklin, and Ford (2014) found that extrinsic incentives were a better predictor of quantitative measures of performance, whereas intrinsic motivation more strongly predicted quality of performance.
Where creativity is concerned, intrinsic motivation has the edge. Check out this insightful TED Talk from motivation expert Professor Beth Hennessey, speaking about why intrinsic motivation is critical for facilitating creativity in the classroom.
When to avoid extrinsic rewards
We also need to be careful about mixing extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. If you’re providing contingent rewards to encourage intrinsically motivated behaviors, this can backfire and harm intrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999).
A meta-analysis found extrinsic rewards at work (pay for performance) resulted in better performance on relatively uninteresting tasks, but weaker performance for more interesting tasks (Weibel, Rost, & Osterloh, 2010). This phenomenon is often referred to as the over-justification effect (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973).
Contingent rewards are external or tangible rewards offered in exchange for:
- Carrying out a task
- Good performance
- Completing a task (Deci et al., 2017)
Offering a contingent reward to someone for an activity they already love doing gives the impression that the task is not inherently valuable in itself and may be perceived as an attack on their autonomy (Deci et al., 2017).
Extrinsic motivation and parenting
Very few studies have explored the long-term effects of continuous extrinsic motivation use with children. Extrinsic motivation can be a useful tool for parents to teach children tasks and responsibilities.
Certain extrinsic motivators, like support and encouragement, may be healthy additions to parenting practices. Some rewards are often discouraged because it may lead to unhealthy associations with the rewards later in life. For example, using food as a reward may lead to unhealthy eating habits.
For small developmental tasks, extrinsic motivators like praise can be very helpful. For instance, using praise can help with toilet training. If you use external rewards, try phasing them out over time so that your child doesn’t become dependent on the reward.
Assessing Extrinsic Motivation: 3 Questionnaires & Scales
The following scales and questionnaires are based on the SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Two scales capture the different types of motivation, and one measures basic need satisfaction.
Self-Regulation Questionnaires
These questionnaires measure motivation (or self-regulation) in seven areas: academic, prosocial, healthcare, learning, exercise, religion, and friendship.
Sub-scales can be used in isolation, or scores for different sub-scales can be combined to create a Relative Autonomy Index. The questionnaires ask people why they do things and tap into all types of motivation identified by the SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
All sub-scales and scoring information can be downloaded by members (membership is free, as of the time of writing) from the Self-Determination Theory website.
Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale – General
This 21-item scale measures the extent to which basic needs of autonomy, competency, and relatedness are met in someone’s life (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gagné, 2003).
In this scale, scores for autonomy, competency, and relatedness are calculated in a ‘General’ domain, but there are also scales available for ‘Relationship’ and ‘Work’ domains.
Scales and full scoring information (as well as other basic needs satisfaction scales) can be downloaded by members.
Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale
This 19-item scale asks people why they put effort into their job and differentiates between social and material extrinsic regulation, as well as all the other types.
You can calculate the different subtypes of motivation or get an overall score of autonomous versus controlled types of motivation (Gagné et al., 2015).
The scale items can be found in the appendix of Gagné et al.’s (2015) paper. The scale is also available in other languages by contacting the first or second author.
6 Helpful Strategies and Techniques
The best way to boost more autonomous extrinsic motivation is to create the right conditions for people to thrive (Deci et al., 2017).
If needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are met, people are more able to internalize the value of an activity, even if the activity was initially motivated by external incentives (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Actively support autonomy
When people feel more autonomous, they are more likely to self-regulate and seek out ways to satisfy their basic needs (Deci et al., 2017).
In the workplace, developing an autonomy-supportive environment is achieved by asking questions; taking the perspective of your clients, teammates, or employees; allowing people to vent difficult emotions; and offering people a choice (Deci et al., 2017).
Cultivate a sense of belonging
Supporting people to feel part of a community, group, or family will encourage them to internalize the values and behaviors of that group (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
When people feel related to others in this way, they are going to see value in engaging in activities that are aligned with the group’s values and mission.
Nurture competency
If people feel like they are competent to carry out a certain activity, they are more likely to do it (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
Providing specific, positive, and informational feedback can help people reach competency (Deci et al., 2017). Understanding where or when people feel incompetent could help you uncover why extrinsic motivation may be falling short.
Give people a reason
Motivation research has shown that giving a rationale for doing an activity increases internalization (Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, & Leone, 1994).
Providing people with a solid justification for the activity they’re doing empowers them to reassess the value of the activity for themselves.
Avoid reward systems based on approval
When praise or approval is the only source of reward on offer, people are likely to engage in extrinsically motivated behaviors that are purely ego driven, meaning they’re focused on achieving status or avoiding damage to self-esteem (Deci et al., 2017).
So, rather than highlighting reward systems that depend on the opinions of others, you could emphasize how activities are valuable on a deeper level (e.g., an opportunity to build relationships with a new team, increase work flexibility, or learn a new skill).
Encourage mindfulness
The SDT emphasizes the importance of self-awareness for facilitating more autonomous forms of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
Mindfulness can help people explore their needs, feelings, and values at a deeper level, which may empower them to sustain and seek opportunities that support their autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
A Take-Home Message
Let’s face it, intrinsic motivation doesn’t grow on trees.
Some tasks will forever be boring, effortful, or unpleasant, and we may need external incentives to get motivated.
Extrinsic motivation has picked up a poor reputation as intrinsic motivation’s less attractive cousin, but when intrinsic motivation is nonexistent, more autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation offer the next best thing.
If you want to boost extrinsic motivation, increasing tangible or contingent rewards like money, praise, or chocolate is not necessarily going to be an effective strategy.
Motivation is a complex psychological force that needs to be treated with respect.
Meeting people’s needs for autonomy, relatedness, and a sense of competency is important for people to feel like their actions are self-determined and motivate them to do things they don’t really want to do (Ryan & Deci, 2020).
The next time you glance down at your to-do list and feel a rising sense of dread, remind yourself you have a choice, give yourself a reason, and try to identify with the instrumental value of a task on a deeper level. If all else fails and you really can’t get going, a good old-fashioned reward could spark enough motivation to get the job done.