Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict and retribution. Committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest of the group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain beliefs) and by engaging in collective negotiation.[rx] Dimensions of resolution typically parallel the dimensions of conflict in the way the conflict is processed. Cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and view the conflict, with beliefs, perspectives, understandings, and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in the way disputants feel about a conflict, the emotional energy. Behavioral resolution is reflective of how the disputant’s act, and their behavior.[rx] Ultimately a wide range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict exist, including negotiation, mediation, mediation-arbitration,[rx] diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding.[rx][rx]
Types of Conflict Resolution Skills
Assertiveness
A supervisor might take the initiative to convene a meeting between two employees who have engaged in a public dispute. An employee might seek out a person with whom they’re having conflict to suggest working together to find ways to co-exist more peacefully.
- Articulation
- Balanced Approach
- Candor
- Decisiveness
- Delegation
- Fact-Based
- Fairness
- Firmness
- Leadership
- Managing Emotions
- Management
- Negotiation
- Socializing
- Voicing Opinions
- Problem-Solving
- Self-Control
- Stress Management
Interviewing and Active Listening
A human resources representative might have to ask questions and listen carefully to determine the nature of a conflict between a supervisor and a subordinate.
- Articulation
- Attentiveness
- Conscientiousness
- Consideration
- Empathy
- Encouragement
- Intuition
- Listening
- Negotiation
- Nonverbal Communication
- Persuasion
- Prediction
- Presentation
- Professionalism
- Relationship Building
- Respect
- Sense of Humor
- Sincerity
- Socializing
- Understanding
- Verbal Communication
Empathy
A mediator might encourage empathy by asking employees in conflict to each describe how the other might be feeling and thinking, and how the situation might look to the other party.
Empathy is also an important skill for mediators, who must be able to understand each party’s perspective, without necessarily agreeing with either.
- Asking for Feedback
- Building Trust
- Compassion
- Inclusion
- Giving Feedback
- Handling Difficult Personalities
- Managing Emotions
- High Emotional Intelligence
- Identifying Nonverbal Cues
- Recognizing Differences
- Understanding Different Viewpoints
- Interpersonal skills
- Patience
- Personable
- Self-Awareness
- Self-Control
- Trustworthiness
- Welcoming Opinions
Facilitation
Managers of rival departments might facilitate a joint brainstorming session with their teams to generate solutions to ongoing points of conflict. Group facilitation techniques can also be used to avoid triggering conflict during group decision-making in the first place.
- Brainstorming
- Collaboration
- Conflict Management
- Diplomacy
- Ethics
- Humility
- Influence
- Insight
- Intuition
- Listening
- Organization
- Patience
- Perception
- Planning
- Practical
- Realistic
- Reflective
- Teamwork
Mediation
A supervisor might guide subordinates who are in conflict through a process to identify mutually agreeable changes in behavior.
- Assertiveness
- Compassionate
- Decision Making
- Emotional Intelligence
- Empathy
- Honesty
- Impartial
- Insightful
- Leadership
- Measured
- Patience
- Problem Solving
- Professionalism
- Psychology
- Rational Approach
- Respect
- Understanding
- Transparency
Problem Solving
A supervisor might redefine the roles of two conflict-prone staff to simply eliminate points of friction. Creativity can also mean finding new win/win solutions.
- Brainstorming Solutions
- Conflict Analysis
- Collaborating
- Creative Problem Solving
- Critical Thinking
- Convening Meetings
- Creativity
- Critical Thinking
- Decision Making
- Designating Sanctions
- Fair Resolution
- Goal Integration
- Monitoring Process
- Nonverbal Communication
- Problem Solving
- Restoring Relationships
- Sense of Humor
- Verbal Communication
Accountability
A supervisor might document conflict-initiating behaviors exhibited by a chronic complainer as preparation for a performance appraisal. In this way, the supervisor helps establish accountability, since the employee can no longer pretend the problem isn’t happening.
- Adaptable
- Collaboration
- Delegation
- Drive
- Dynamism
- Flexibility
- Focus
- Follow-through
- Honesty
- Integrity
- Leadership
- Motivation
- Organized
- Planning
- Results-Oriented
- Visionary
- Trustworthy
- Versatile
More Conflict Resolution Skills
- Accepting Criticism
- Assertiveness
- Avoid Punishment
- Being Present
- Calmness
- Data-Driven
- Impartiality
- Intuition
- Leadership
- Letting It Go
- Logical
- Non-Bias
- Patience
- Positivity
- Prioritizing Relationships
- Project Management
- Research
- Respecting Differences
- Separating Yourself
- Stress Management
- Technical Expertise
The Conflict Resolution Process
The resolution of conflicts in the workplace typically involves some or all of the following processes:
- Recognition by the parties involved that a problem exists.
- Mutual agreement to address the issue and find some resolution.
- An effort to understand the perspective and concerns of the opposing individual or group.
- Identifying changes in attitude, behavior, and approaches to work by both sides that will lessen negative feelings.
- Recognizing triggers to episodes of conflict.
- Interventions by third parties such as human resources representatives or higher-level managers to mediate.
- A willingness by one or both parties to compromise.
- Agreement on a plan to address differences.
- Monitoring the impact of any agreements for change.
- Disciplining or terminating employees who resist efforts to defuse conflicts.
Examples of Conflict Resolution Skills
- Assertiveness by a supervisor who convenes a meeting between two employees who have engaged in a public dispute.
- Interviewing and active listening skills utilized by a human resources representative to define the nature of a conflict between a supervisor and subordinate.
- A supervisor encouraging empathy by asking opposing employees to describe how the other might feel in conflict situations.
- Managers of rival departments facilitating a brainstorming session with their staff to generate solutions to ongoing points of conflict.
- Mediation skills by a supervisor who helps rival subordinates to identify mutually agreeable changes in behavior.
- A co-worker seeking out a rival and suggesting that she would like to find a way to co-exist more peacefully.
- Creativity and problem-solving by a supervisor who redefines roles of two conflict-prone staff to eliminate points of friction.
- Accountability established by a supervisor who documents conflict-initiating behaviors on an employee’s performance appraisal.
Mechanisms
One theory discussed within the field of peace and conflict studies is conflict resolution mechanisms: independent procedures in which the conflicting parties can have confidence. They can be formal or informal arrangements with the intention of resolving the conflict.[rx] In Understanding Conflict Resolution Wallensteen draws from the works of Lewis A. Coser, Johan Galtung and Thomas Schelling, and presents seven distinct theoretical mechanisms for conflict resolutions:[rx]
- A shift in priorities for one of the conflicting parties. While it is rare that a party completely changes its basic positions, it can display a shift in to what it gives the highest priority. In such an instance new possibilities for conflict resolutions may arise.
- The contested resource is divided. In essence, this means both conflicting parties display some extent of shift in priorities which then opens up for some form of “meeting the other side halfway” agreement.
- Horse-trading between the conflicting parties. This means that one side gets all of its demands met on one issue, while the other side gets all of its demands met on another issue.
- The parties decide to share control and rule together over the contested resource. It could be permanent, or a temporary arrangement for a transition period that, when over, has led to a transcendence of the conflict.
- The parties agree to leave control to someone else. In this mechanism, the primary parties agree, or accept, that a third party takes control over the contested resource.
- The parties resort to conflict resolution mechanisms, notably arbitration or other legal procedures. This means finding a procedure for resolving the conflict through some of the previously mentioned five ways, but with the added quality that it is done through a process outside of the parties’ immediate control.
- Some issues can be left for later. The argument for this is that political conditions and popular attitudes can change, and some issues can gain from being delayed, as their significance may pale with time.
Why Is Conflict Resolution Important?
Bolton (1986, p. 7) states, “Our personality development and mental and physical health are linked to the caliber of our communication.” To become fully human, you must interact with others.
Therefore, poor communication skills hinder development and can affect our physical and mental health (Bolton, 1986).
Let’s inspect the research on the correlation between overall health and social connectedness.
Overall health implications
Researchers draw a clear link between relationships and health, stating that socially connected adults are healthier and live longer than their isolated peers (Umberson & Karas Montez, 2010). In fact, Umberson and Karas Montez (2010) cite the use of isolation as an extreme form of punishment.
Some of the risks for people with few and low-quality social ties include increased risk of death (for those with medical conditions), cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, autonomic dysregulation, cancer, high blood pressure, and slower wound healing. Other risks include inflammation biomarkers and impaired immune function (Umberson & Karas Montez, 2010).
Physical
Active and ongoing conflict is often accompanied by toxic thoughts, which create stress, release cortisol, and raise levels of bad fats and sugars in your bloodstream (Leaf, 2008). This physical reaction constricts blood vessels, making it harder for blood to flow.
According to Dr. Caroline Leaf (2008), it is dangerous to our health when we won’t forgive another. Unforgiveness often precedes or accompanies ongoing conflict. She says some repercussions are hypertension, angina, coronary artery disease, stroke, and aneurysm (Leaf, 2008).
Behavioral
Angry and hostile people are also more likely to smoke, drink alcohol, and consume more calories than people without these traits (Williams & Williams, 1998). The effects of such destructive habits further compromise our health, putting us at risk for illnesses.
Conversely, strong social ties are associated with positive health behaviors.
Psychosocial
Social support is the natural byproduct of healthy relationships and is associated with mental health benefits through reduced stress and enhanced life meaning and purpose (Umberson & Karas Montez, 2010).
Mental health and physical health coalesce with other factors to provide personal benefits. For instance, emotional support enhances psychological wellbeing, which can help reduce unhealthy behaviors that lead to poor physical health (Umberson & Karas Montez, 2010).
The interaction of these life elements validates Bolton’s position that poor communication skills can affect our physical and mental health. Effective conflict resolution skills help enhance communication, producing positive personal benefits.
Conflict Resolution Training Explained
“People have been interested in the study of conflict at least since biblical times” (Pruitt & Kim, 2004, p. 9).
Focusing on dyadic conflict, Pruitt and Kim (2004, p. 190) describe problem-solving as a “joint effort to find a mutually acceptable solution.”
They describe three possible outcomes of problem-solving: conflict management, settlement, and conflict resolution.
Aside from reading conflict resolution books such as Social Conflicts by Pruitt and Kim (2004), how do you acquire expertise in the field?
Training components
Various programs throughout the United States and the world offer training in conflict resolution. Programs encompass a variety of formats, some of which include interdisciplinary components, such as theory, practice, and research.
Another important component of conflict resolution training is skill development. Pruitt and Kim (2004) categorize skill development into five domains.
Skill development
- Analyzing the conflict
Looking at the conditions that produced the conflict, clarifying the interests of both or all parties, and identifying conflict spirals and other structural changes or patterns. - Effective communication
Active listening, empathy, open and direct communication, and providing feedback when necessary. - Problem-solving and negotiation
Stimulating collaboration between parties, prioritizing issues, brainstorming solutions, and creating a mutually satisfying agreement. - Coping with strong emotions such as anger
Monitoring the emotions of all parties, using skills to work through emotional episodes, being aware of emotions, and coping with them. - Moving to action
Building conflict management systems and following through management and evaluation of the system.
Participants in these programs gain the skills and techniques to practice conflict resolution, which includes an expanding array of specializations.
Alternative dispute resolution applications
The following list of specialized fields of concentration can be addressed using a variety of practices, each with its own unique effect.
- Policy development (Pruitt & Kim, 2004)
- Program development (Pranis, 2005)
- Historical critique (Kriesberg, 2009)
- Cultural analysis, examining gender, religious traditions, social class, ethnicity, etc. (Kriesberg, 2009)
- Organizational analysis, including business contracts and disputes (Pruitt & Kim, 2004)
- Community-based strategies, involving neighbors, landlords, tenants, small claims, etc. (Pruitt & Kim, 2004)
- Global conflict (Kriesberg, 2009)
- Peace studies and skill building (Pranis, 2005)
- Familial studies, including divorce and child custody (Pruitt & Kim, 2004)
- Social issues, including immigration, politics, social justice, food insecurity, and homelessness (Pranis, 2005)
- Environmental issues, such as land rights, water rights, climate change, dams, and oil wells (Pruitt & Kim, 2004; Pranis, 2005)
- Restorative justice, be it at the correctional, educational, or individual level (Pranis, 2005; Toews, 2006)
Conflict resolution practices
Various practices fall under the umbrella of alternative dispute resolution. Mediation, negotiation, arbitration, intermediaries, ombudspersons, peacekeepers, and conciliation all fall within this category, along with other, lesser known, practices such as circle keeping and conflict coaching (Pruitt & Kim, 2004; Sande, 2004; Pranis, 2005; Jones & Brinkert, 2008).
Alternative dispute resolution is often less expensive and more successful than traditional strategies (Pruitt & Kim, 2004). In addition, disputants’ interests and needs are satisfied, and participants are not subject to stringent rules and policies.
Finally, because integrative solutions are sought and incorporated, the parties’ level of satisfaction with the results is increased.
What is conflict resolution, and how can you use it to settle disputes in your workplace?
Conflict resolution can be defined as the informal or formal process that two or more parties use to find a peaceful solution to their dispute.
A number of common cognitive and emotional traps, many of them unconscious, can exacerbate conflict and contribute to the need for conflict resolution:
- Self-serving fairness interpretations. Rather than deciding what’s fair from a position of neutrality, we interpret what would be most fair to us, then justify this preference on the bases of fairness. For example, department heads are likely to each think they deserve the lion’s share of the annual budget. Disagreements about what’s fairlead to clashes.
- Overconfidence. We tend to be overconfident in our judgments, a tendency that leads us to unrealistic expectations. Disputants are likely to be overconfident about their odds of winning a lawsuit, for instance, an error that can lead them to shun a negotiated settlement that would save them time and money.
- Escalation of commitment. Whether negotiators are dealing with a labor strike, a merger, or an argument with a colleague, they are likely to irrationally escalate their commitment to their chosen course of action, long after it has proven useful. We desperately try to recoup our past investments in a dispute (such as money spent on legal fees), failing to recognize that such “sunk costs” should play no role in our decisions about the future.
- Conflict avoidance. Because negative emotions cause us discomfort and distress, we may try to tamp them down, hoping that our feelings will dissipate with time. In fact, conflict tends to become more entrenched, and parties have a greater need for conflict resolution when they avoid dealing with their strong emotions. Given these and other pitfalls, how can you set up a constructive conflict resolution process when dealing with conflict at work and other realms? Conflicts can be resolved in a variety of ways, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and litigation.
- Negotiation. In conflict resolution, you can and should draw on the same principles of collaborative negotiation that you use in dealmaking. For example, you should aim to explore the interests underlying the parties’ positions, such as a desire to resolve a dispute without attracting negative publicity or to repair a damaged business relationship. In addition, determine your best alternative to a negotiated agreement, or BATNA—what you will do if you fail to reach an agreement, such as finding a new partner or filing a lawsuit. By brainstorming options and looking for tradeoffs across issues, you may be able to negotiate a satisfactory outcome to your dispute without the aid of outside parties.
- Mediation. In mediation, disputants enlist a trained, neutral third party to help them come to a consensus. Rather than imposing a solution, a professional mediator encourages disputants to explore the interests underlying their positions. Working with parties both together and separately, mediators seek to help them discover a resolution that is sustainable, voluntary, and nonbinding.
- Arbitration. In arbitration, which can resemble a court trial, a neutral third party serves as a judge who makes decisions to end the dispute. The arbitrator listens to the arguments and evidence presented by each side, then renders a binding and often confidential decision. Although disputants typically cannot appeal an arbitrator’s decision, they can negotiate most aspects of the arbitration process, including whether lawyers will be present and which standards of evidence will be used.
- Litigation. In civil litigation, a defendant and a plaintiff face off before either a judge or a judge and jury, who weigh the evidence and make a ruling. Information presented in hearings and trials usually enters the public record. Lawyers typically dominate litigation, which often ends in a negotiated settlement during the pretrial period.
In general, it makes sense to start off with less-expensive, less-formal conflict resolution procedures, such as negotiation and mediation, before making the larger commitments of money and time that arbitration and litigation often demand. Conflict-resolution training can further enhance your ability to negotiate satisfactory resolutions to your disputes.
Bachelor’s and Master’s Degree Opportunities
Do you wish to obtain a qualification in conflict resolution? Then look at the following opportunities.
The foundation
During the 1950s and 1960s in the United States, work in research and theory was feverishly conducted to prevent a devastating and possibly nuclear war (Kriesberg, 2009).
Stanford University’s Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (CASBS) was central to the emergence of conflict resolution as a field of study. Many of the same founders of CASBS at Stanford were catalytic in establishing the Center for Research on Conflict Resolution at the University of Michigan in 1959 (Kriesberg, 2009).
Publications focusing on negotiation and mediation went mainstream in 1981 with the publication of Getting to Yes by Fisher and Ury. During this same time period, conflict resolution began to spread and become institutionalized largely in part by contributions through the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, whose donations helped found the National Institute of Dispute Resolution in 1981 (Kriesberg, 2009).
Grants were also used to found the Harvard Program on Negotiation, a consortium including the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Tufts, and Harvard (Kriesberg, 2009). Soon to follow were grant-funded conflict resolution centers at universities such as Northwestern, Rutgers, Syracuse, Wisconsin, and George Mason University in 1987 (Kriesberg, 2009).
Demand spurred a rise in graduate programs throughout the 1980s and 1990s, and master’s degrees sprouted throughout various institutions, such as Eastern Mennonite University, University of Denver, University of Notre Dame, and Wayne State University (Kriesberg, 2009).
In addition, certification programs sprouted up at universities such as Cornell, Fordham, and Johns Hopkins (Kriesberg, 2009).
Finally, a PhD major was offered at George Mason University in 1987 – the first of its kind – followed by Nova Southeastern University and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst (Kriesberg, 2009).
A closer look
One of the founding mainstays of conflict resolution is the Harvard Negotiation Project. It was created in 1979 as part of the Program on Negotiation consortium. Faculty and staff straddle theory and practice to develop and create useful praxis for scholars.
According to their website, they offer programs varying in length from one day to a full semester in topics such as Negotiation and Leadership: Dealing With Difficult People and Problems and a Harvard Negotiation Masterclass.
The Harvard Negotiation Project offers programs and certificates in mediation and an array of other related topics. According to the website, they chose the moniker “project” rather than program for the continuity of the project as long as it’s needed.
With its lengthy history and long list of distinguished instructors, the Harvard Negotiation Project maintains one of the top spots in the field of conflict resolution.
There are several prestigious programs that deserve attention and consideration. Below are some notable offerings.
18 Best Courses and Online Options
Distinctions between the best courses and online options are clearly subjective. Use these as a starting point for research related to further education in the field of conflict resolution.
Basic mediation training
A great starting point, this is a basic, 40-hour immersive mediation course provided through Utah Dispute Resolution. This course provides the groundwork for understanding conflict dynamics and how to work with parties to resolve it.
Participants analyze topics such as conflict dynamics, negotiation, communication, mediation, opening statements and process, and agreement writing.
Courses in basic mediation are offered in virtually every state as well as globally. Participants can choose from online or face-to-face formats.
Research local and state mediation guidelines prior to choosing a program to ensure your choice fulfills the requirements. It is also good to note that there is often a practicum or observation process that precedes mediating on your own.
Certificates in conflict resolution
The following universities offer certification programs that can further and enhance your career and are formatted to accommodate various schedules.
University of Utah – Conflict Resolution Graduate Certificate Program
The University of Utah offers a graduate certificate in conflict resolution. The course is 102 hours or two semesters and includes topics such as mediator ethics, reframing conflicts, and the boundaries of mediation.
Many conflict resolution programs can be found within university law departments; however, the University of Utah’s program is housed within the Communication Institute.
Pepperdine University – Certificate in Conflict Management
This certification requires 14–16 units offered through the law school and combines theory with skills such as strategic negotiation, creative problem-solving, and effective deal making.
Nova Southeastern University (NSU) – Certificate in Advanced Conflict Resolution Practice
NSU’s certification program is offered in on-site and distance learning formats. This program is intended for individuals seeking to become practitioners or gain additional expertise. Part-time students can complete the program in 16 months.
Creighton University – Negotiation and Conflict Resolution Graduate Certificate
Creighton offers their certification program in an online format that can be completed in as few as 12 months.
Advanced degrees in conflict resolution
Master’s degrees
Individuals seeking to spend more time and effort to obtain a master’s degree can explore various top-rated programs on the Online Master of Legal Studies Program website.
PhD degrees
As noted above, universities such as George Mason, Nova Southeastern University, and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst all offer a PhD in the study of conflict resolution.
According to Columbia University’s Doctoral Programs in Peace, Conflict, and Sustainability webpage, several other notable institutions have added PhDs in the field, such as Boston University in Massachusetts, University of Buffalo, Capital University Law School, Illinois Institute of Technology, University of New Hampshire, and the University of Notre Dame.
A Take-Home Message
Learning about conflict dynamics, conflict management styles, and techniques to resolve or deescalate conflict places us at a distinct advantage.
Advantages such as these bring fluidity to complicated communication issues, enhance and restore relationships, and generate health benefits for those involved.
As a writer and social justice advocate, what I’ve learned through my conflict resolution journey is that it’s important to choose words wisely when working with people in conflict.
It is crucial to be present in a way that works for the other person and to listen above speaking.
My training has changed the way I respond to conflict. My hope is that there is a ripple effect for those around me.