Self-determination is an important concept that refers to each person’s ability to make choices and manage their own life. This ability plays an important role in psychological health and well-being. Self-determination allows people to feel that they have control over their choices and lives. It also has an impact on motivation—people feel more motivated to take action when they feel that what they do will have an effect on the outcome.
Self-determination denotes the legal right of people to decide their own destiny in the international order. Self-determination is a core principle of international law, arising from customary international law, but is also recognized as a general principle of law, and enshrined in a number of international treaties.
People are often motivated to act by external influences, be they financial reward, prestige, advancement, or the opinions of others. Just as often, people are motivated from within, by their beliefs and personal values.
While extrinsic motivation is not necessarily a bad thing, it is intrinsic motivation that most effectively encourages and sustains action. We need to feel autonomous – that we are the authors and agents of our behavior – rather than feeling that external forces control our behavior.
Self-determination is primarily concerned with intrinsically driven motivation and shines a light on the interplay between the external factors and internal motives inherent in human nature.
The following article will examine the concept of self-determination, answer common questions on the subject, and take a look at some activities, assessments, and worksheets to develop and improve self-determination skills.
What Is Self-Determination?
Self-determination began as a political concept whereby a group of people could form their state and choose their government (Unrepresented Nations & Peoples Organization, 2017). After World War II, the promotion and support of self-determination became one of the primary goals of the United Nations. In psychology, self-determination refers to an individual’s ability to make choices and manage their own life.
Self-determination theory (SDT) is an approach to human motivation that emphasizes the importance of our evolved inner resources for personality development and behavioral self-regulation (Ryan, Kuhl, & Deci, 1997). Deci (1992) recognized the motivational dynamics that determine the activities an individual chooses freely and those activities they feel coerced or compelled to partake in.
Similarly, Wehmeyer (2007) defined self-determination as the primary causal agent that encourages decision-making that is free from external influence. According to Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, and Wehmeyer (1998), an understanding of our strengths and limitations and a belief in ourselves as capable and competent are essential to self-determination.
When acting based on these skills and attitudes, individuals have a greater ability to take control of their lives and engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior.
In essence, self-determination is a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that allow the individual to choose and act by those choices rather than reinforce contingencies, drives, or other external pressures.
A Look at the Concept in Psychology
As a psychological construct, self-determination is a theory of motivation and personality that addresses issues of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation concerning universal, innate psychological needs. These needs are thought to be essential for growth and integration, constructive social development, and personal well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
SDT postulates that humans have three innate psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2000):
- Competence (feeling effective)
- Autonomy (the feeling of being the origin of our behavior)
- Psychological relatedness (feeling cared for and understood by other people)
The satisfaction and fulfillment of these three needs are considered necessary and essential to vital, healthy human functioning, regardless of culture or stage of development (Silva, Marques, & Teixeira, 2014).
When these three needs are met, individuals experience more vitality, self-motivation, and well-being. Conversely, circumvention of these basic needs may lead to declining self-motivation and a heightened sense of ill-being (Ryan, Deci, Grolnick, & La Guardia, 2006).
Self-determination theory developed through a set of six ‘mini-theories,’ which represent a broad framework for the study of human motivation and personality:
- Cognitive evaluation theory is concerned with intrinsic motivation and how factors such as rewards, deadlines, feedback, and pressure affect feelings of autonomy and competence.
- Organismic integration theory is concerned with extrinsic motivation in its various forms and addresses the process of internalization of various extrinsic motives.
- Causality orientations theory is concerned with individual differences in tendencies to orient toward environments and regulate behavior in various ways.
- Basic psychological needs theory elaborates on the concept of the three basic psychological needs by connecting them directly with wellness.
- Goal contents theory is concerned with the distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and their impact on motivation and wellness.
- Relationships motivation theory is concerned with the development and maintenance of close personal relationships and encompasses one of the three basic psychological needs: relatedness.
Common Questions on Self-Determination
Several questions are asked regularly about self-determination, and some of the more common ones are answered below.
Why is self-determination so important?
The promotion and procurement of self-determination skills can help individuals of all ages, with or without disabilities, to assert personal control over their choices in life.
Self-determination plays a vital role in several contexts. It has been shown to increase life satisfaction in later life (Ekelund, Dahlin-Ivanoff, & Eklund, 2014), promote physical activity and weight loss (Silva et al., 2010; Teixeira, Silva, Mata, Palmeira, & Markland, 2012), moderate occupational burnout (Fernet, Guay, & Senecal, 2004), and affect motivation (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
Within an educational setting, the integration of self-determination skills such as self-regulation, decision making, and action planning has been shown to help students evaluate and set personal goals; become more autonomous, self-determined learners; and increase the sense of control over their learning (Eisenman, 2007).
When young adults develop the ability to consider and implement solutions to their problems, they become intrinsically motivated and actively engaged in the learning process (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Wehmeyer (2005) discussed a common misconception that people with severe disabilities lack the requisite skills to exert control in their lives. While it is true that individuals with severe disabilities may be limited in the degree to which they can become more self-determined, by encouraging the expression of preferences and promoting self-advocacy, there are opportunities for them to become causal agents in their own lives.
Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003) found that students with disabilities who took part in a self-determination program were more likely to live independently and move out of the family home, hold a job, and have greater financial independence.
Is self-determined behavior always ‘successful’ behavior?
Self-determination has been linked to myriad positive outcomes, and perhaps unsurprisingly, there is a tendency to equate self-determined behavior with successful behaviors. However, even self-determined people experience failure. According to Wehmeyer (2005), the emphasis should be on the attempt to exercise control and not on the specific outcome of actions.
Self-determination should not be equated only with successful outcomes. Not every decision an individual makes turns out to be an optimal decision, nor is every goal the right goal.
What are the primary assumptions of self-determination?
According to Deci and Ryan (1985), self-determination consists of two key assumptions. The first is that the innate human need for growth drives behavior. Put simply, people are actively directed toward growth, gaining mastery over challenges, and taking on new experiences to develop a cohesive sense of self.
The second assumption focuses on the importance of autonomous motivation which has been linked to greater psychological health and more effective performance (Deci & Ryan, 2008). While individuals can be motivated by external factors such as money and acclaim, self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation, such as a need to gain knowledge or independence (Silva et al., 2014).
What techniques are used in self-determination interventions?
Interventions based on self-determination theory comprise many behavioral and communicative techniques that focus on the satisfaction of needs and autonomy. Reeve and Jang (2006) emphasized the importance of autonomy-based interventions within education, healthcare, parenting, and the workplace.
This focus on personal autonomy can include taking the client’s perspective, creating opportunities for client input and initiative, and providing explanatory rationales for requests made by the practitioner.
Additionally, many self-determination interventions are concerned with the support of competence and psychological relatedness needs. Many of the techniques used to support competence focus on promoting a sense of satisfaction by making progress toward self-referenced goals, attaining mastery, and developing self-determination skills (Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Goossens, Soenens, & Dochy, 2009).
Are self-determination and self-efficacy the same?
According to Sugarman and Sokol (2012), self-determination and self-efficacy are both based on the ideology that people are agents of their actions and possess complex internal structures that allow them to make choices regarding their actions. While the two theories work from a similar ideology, they also view the concept of agency from very different perspectives.
Self-efficacy reflects the capacity of individuals to take measures to achieve targeted goals (Bandura, 1997). In terms of self-efficacy, enhanced perceptions of competency lead to perceived controllability. It is an individual’s self-efficacy that drives their agency. Put simply, people act when they feel able to achieve the goals they have set.
While self-determination theory recognizes that feelings of competence are important, autonomy plays a more central role. When an individual perceives their actions as autonomous, then self-determined motivation is the main element of agency (Sweet, Fortier, Strachan, & Blanchard, 2012).
8 Self-Determination Skills to Utilize Today
While self-determination is a complex construct that includes a combination of skills and knowledge, these skills are teachable, measurable, and most effectively developed through regular practice. According to Wehmeyer, Agran, and Hughes (2000), the component skills of self-determined behavior include the following:
1. Choice-making skills
Choice making is an individual’s ability to express their preference between two or more options (Wehmeyer, 2005) and exert control over their actions and environment.
2. Decision-making skills
Similar to choice-making, decision-making requires effective judgments about what choices or solutions are right at any given moment. According to Wehmeyer (2007), effective decision-making requires individuals to identify possible alternatives for action, the potential consequences of each action, assess the probability of each result occurring, select the best alternative, and implement the alternative decision.
3. Problem-solving skills
Problem-solving requires the identification of a problem, possible solutions, and an understanding of the potential pros and cons of each solution.
4. Goal-setting and attainment skills
Goal setting and attainment skills are critical components in the development of abilities that lead to agentic action and self-determination.
5. Self-regulation skills (including self-observation, evaluation, and reinforcement)
Self-regulation is the process by which people incorporate behavioral change into their everyday lives (Kapp, 2001). Self-regulation involves setting goals, developing a plan to achieve goals, implementing and following the action plan, evaluating the outcomes of the action plan, and adjusting accordingly.
6. Self-advocacy skills
Self-advocacy refers to an individual’s ability to express their needs and wants assertively and take action on their behalf. More on this topic in How to Foster Self-Expression.
7. Positive self-efficacy (including an internal locus of control)
Self-efficacy with an internal locus of control encourages individuals to believe in their ability to perform and achieve goals.
8. Self-awareness skills
Self-awareness skills allow individuals to identify and understand their needs, strengths, and limitations.
What Is Self-Determination Theory?
Self-determination theory suggests that people are motivated to grow and change by three innate and universal psychological needs.
This theory suggests that people are able to become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled.
The concept of intrinsic motivation, or engaging in activities for the inherent rewards of the behavior itself, plays an important role in self-determination theory.
Self-determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, who first introduced their ideas in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior. They developed a theory of motivation that suggested that people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment.
Two key assumptions of the theory:
The need for growth drives behavior. The first assumption of self-determination theory is that people are actively directed toward growth. Gaining mastery over challenges and taking in new experiences are essential for developing a cohesive sense of self.
Autonomous motivation is important. While people are often motivated to act by external rewards such as money, prizes, and acclaim (known as extrinsic motivation), self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation such as a need to gain knowledge or independence (known as intrinsic motivation).
Differences Between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following in order to achieve psychological growth:
- Autonomy: People need to feel in control of their own behaviors and goals. This sense of being able to take direct action that will result in real change plays a major part in helping people feel self-determined.
- Competence: People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills. When people feel that they have the skills needed for success, they are more likely to take actions that will help them achieve their goals.
- Connection or relatedness: People need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people.
Imagine a person who fails to complete an important project at work. If this person is high in self-determination, they will admit their fault, believe that they can do something to fix the problem and take action to correct the mistake.
If that same person was low in self-determination, they might instead look for other things that they can blame. They might make excuses, assign blame, or refuse to admit their own role. Most importantly, perhaps, is that this person won’t feel motivated to fix the mistake. Instead, they might feel helpless to control the situation and believe that nothing that they do will have any real effect.
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How the Self-Determination Theory Works
It is important to realize that the psychological growth described by self-determination theory does not simply happen automatically. While people might be oriented toward such growth, it requires continual sustenance
Ryan and Deci have suggested that the tendency to be either proactive or passive is largely influenced by the social conditions in which people are raised. Social support is key. Through our relationships and interactions with others, we can either foster or thwart well-being and personal growth.
While social support is important, there are other factors that can also help or hinder the three elements needed for growth.
- Extrinsic motivators can sometimes lower self-determination. According to Deci, giving people extrinsic rewards for already intrinsically motivated behavior can undermine autonomy. As the behavior becomes increasingly controlled by external rewards, people begin to feel less in control of their own behavior and intrinsic motivation is diminished.
- Positive feedback and boost self-determination. Deci also suggests that offering unexpected positive encouragement and feedback on a person’s performance on a task can increase intrinsic motivation. This type of feedback helps people to feel more competent, which is one of the key needs for personal growth.
Self-Determined vs. Non-Self-Determined Behaviors
While extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are often portrayed as separate and distinct, behavior is complex and people are rarely driven to act by a single source of motivation. People may often draw on multiple sources of motivation in the pursuit of a goal. If you are training to compete in a marathon, for example, you might be extrinsically motivated by a desire to gain approval from others as well as intrinsically motivated by the satisfaction you gain from the activity itself.
Rather than thinking of motivation as being driven by either extrinsic or intrinsic rewards, it is often helpful to view it as a continuum between self-determined and non-self-determined behaviors:
- Purely self-determined behaviors tend to be intrinsically driven and are done for enjoyment, interest, and inherent satisfaction for the action itself.
- On the other end of the continuum are non-self-determined behaviors, which are performed only because they must be done. On this extreme end of the scale, there is a complete lack of control.
In most cases, behaviors tend to lie somewhere in the middle of the continuum. There is often a varying amount of external motivation, which can also fuel a degree of internal motivation. People may engage in actions because they feel they have some level of personal control and the behaviors ultimately align with something that is important for self-concept.
Most actions are not purely self-determined or non-self-determined. Instead, actions often rely on a certain degree of self-determination that may also be influenced by extrinsic motivations.
Self-Determination in the Real World
Self-determination can play an important role in how people function in many different areas of their lives. Feeling in control and intrinsically motivated can help people feel more committed, passionate, interested, and satisfied with the things that they do.
In the Workplace
People who feel that they are able to have a positive effect at work tend to feel more engaged and motivated. How else can employers build self-determination in their workers?
- Managers and leaders can foster this sense of self-determination by allowing team members to take an active role.
- Offer employees responsibilities, provide meaningful feedback, and offer support and encouragement.
- Employers should be careful not to overuse extrinsic rewards. Too many rewards can undercut intrinsic motivation (a phenomenon known as the overjustification effect), yet too few can cause employees to feel unappreciated.
In Competition
In competitive settings such as sports and athletics, fostering a sense of self-determination can inspire people to excel.
- Athletes who feel that they are capable of achieving their goals and overcoming challenges are often driven to perform better.
- Excelling allows people to gain an important sense of competence and build mastery in skills that are enjoyable and important to them.
Researchers have also found that people who have an internal sense of control are also more likely to stick to a regular exercise regimen.
In Social Settings
Self-determination can also play an important role in social relationships. A sense of belongingness is critical in the development of self-determination. Forging close, affectionate relationships with other people can improve self-determination.
- Seek positive relationships with people who will support you in the pursuit of your goals.
- Offer support and feedback to the people who are part of your social circle.
In School Settings
Self-determined students are more likely to feel motivated to achieve. There are things that educators can to do help students foster a sense of self-determination and intrinsic motivation:
- Providing unexpected positive feedback when students perform well can help improve competence
- Avoiding excessive external rewards for actions students already enjoy can help improve internal motivation
How to Improve Self-Determination
In order to strengthen your own self-determination, it is helpful to think about what a highly self-determined individual might look like.
People who are high in self-determination tend to:
- Believe that they have control over their own lives. They have an internal locus of control and feel that their behaviors will have an influence on outcomes. When confronted with challenges, they feel that they can overcome them through diligence, good choices, and hard work.
- Have high self-motivation. They do not rely on external rewards or punishments to motivate them to take action. They engage in behaviors because they are good at setting goals and working toward those aims.
- Base their actions on their own goals and behaviors. In other words, they intentionally engage in actions that they know will bring them closer toward their goals.
- Take responsibility for their behaviors. Highly self-determined people take credit for their success, but they also accept the blame for their failures.
Improving self-awareness, decision-making skills, self-regulation, and goal-setting abilities can encourage the growth of stronger self-determination.
7 Useful Activities and Worksheets (incl. PDF)
The following worksheets are designed to assist in the development of the component skills of self-determined behavior.
1. Self-Awareness Worksheet for Young Children
2. Self-Awareness Worksheet for Older Children
3. Self-Awareness Worksheet for Adults
4. Decision-Making Worksheet for Adults
5. Problem-Solving Worksheet for Adults
6. Emotion Regulation Worksheet
7. Self-Awareness Test
5 Assessments, Tests, and Questionnaires
Several scientific scales and assessments are available to evaluate self-determination. Below is a sampling of five of these.
1. The Basic Needs Satisfaction in General Scale (BNSG-S; Gagné, 2003)
This 21-item scale measures the three distinct needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness with the emphasis that all three needs must be individually met for wellness. The BNSG-S was developed to assess the satisfaction of basic psychological needs in general.
Respondents are invited to indicate how true each statement is for them and respond on a scale from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true). Higher scores are indicative of a higher level of satisfaction with needs.
2. AIR Self-Determination Assessments
The American Institutes for Research developed the AIR Self-Determination Assessments in conjunction with Columbia University. Designed for use with adolescents, these assessments can be used to measure two broad components of self-determination:
- The knowledge, abilities, and perceptions that enable self-determination
- The opportunity to use the relevant knowledge and abilities
The AIR Self-Determination Scale produces a profile of the student’s level of self-determination, identifies areas of strength and areas needing improvement, and identifies specific educational goals.
- AIR Self-Determination Student Form
- AIR Self-Determination Parent Form
- AIR Self-Determination Educator Form
You can find guidance on how to use and interpret the results of the AIR Assessments here.
3. The ARC Self-Determination Scale (Wehmeyer & Kelchner, 1995)
The ARC Self-Determination Scale was developed to assess the self-determination strengths and weaknesses of adolescents with disabilities and to facilitate client involvement in determining goals. The assessment scores for autonomy, self-regulation, psychological empowerment, self-realization, and finally, an overall rating for self-determination.
You can find the scale, procedural guidelines, and guidance on scoring and interpretation here.
6 Books Worth Reading
The following selection of books will enhance your understanding of self-determination.
1. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
With a focus on self-determination and competence, this comprehensive publication by Deci and Ryan explores the six mini-theories in greater detail.
It also looks at the processes and structures related to the three innate psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and interpersonal relatedness.
Available on Amazon.
- Hardcover Book
- Deci, Edward L. (Author)
- English (Publication Language)
- 372 Pages - 08/31/1985 (Publication Date) - Plenum Press (Publisher)
2. Self-Determination Theory in the Clinic (Sheldon, Williams, & Joiner, 2003)
Self-Determination Theory in the Clinic provides an in-depth historical background to SDT based on three decades of empirical research.
The authors also include numerous specific clinical and case examples to describe the theory’s application.
They show the ways it can be used to motivate patients undergoing treatment for physiological and psychological issues such as diabetes management, smoking cessation, post-traumatic stress, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression.
Available on Amazon.
- Sheldon, Kennon M. (Author)
- English (Publication Language)
- 224 Pages - 05/28/2013 (Publication Date) - Yale University Press (Publisher)
3. Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness (Ryan & Deci, 2018)
Ryan and Deci examine the philosophical and historical considerations related to intrinsic motivation and self-determination in addition to the six mini-theories on which the framework of SDT was built.
Additionally, the authors discuss the application of self-determination theory in multiple domains, including healthcare, education, sports, virtual environments, and organizations.
Available on Amazon.
- Ryan, Richard M. (Author)
- English (Publication Language)
- 756 Pages - 11/06/2018 (Publication Date) - The Guilford Press (Publisher)
4. Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Perspective, Applications, and Impact (Wade, 2017)
This book provides a comprehensive rundown of research in the study of SDT, including perspectives on gender differences in pro-environmental behaviors and professional athletes from an SDT perspective.
Wade discusses the motivational typology in self-determination theory and explores the egoistic side of public service motivation.
Available on Amazon.
- Hardcover Book
- English (Publication Language)
- 180 Pages - 01/01/2017 (Publication Date) - Nova Science Pub Inc (Publisher)
5. The Handbook of Self-Determination Research (Deci & Ryan, 2004)
The Handbook of Self-Determination Research summarizes over 20 years of self-determination research findings from social, personality, clinical, developmental, and applied psychologists.
With an emphasis on the importance of self-determination for understanding basic motivational processes and solving pressing real-world problems, this handbook provides a detailed overview of self-determination theory and explores the current state of self-determination research about other areas of inquiry such as coping, self-esteem, and interest.
Available on Amazon.
- Used Book in Good Condition
- English (Publication Language)
- 480 Pages - 02/09/2025 (Publication Date) - University of Rochester Press (Publisher)
6. The Oxford Handbook of Work Motivation, Engagement, and Self-Determination Theory (Gagné, 2014)
The Oxford Handbook of Work Motivation, Engagement, and Self-Determination Theory brings together self-determination theory experts and organizational psychology experts to discuss a wide range of topics.
The book provides suggestions for practitioners on how to adjust their programs and practices using self-determination theory principles.
Topics in the handbook include self-determination research and practice, the application of self-determination theory to the field of organizational psychology, suggestions for future research in organizational psychology, and a range of topics related to motivation in the workplace.
The book is available here.
A Take-Home Message
We need to feel autonomous and that we are the authors and agents of our behavior rather than believe that external forces control our behavior.
Being self-determined and having the autonomy to make choices that shape your future are essential. It means knowing what you want, making choices that are right for you at the moment, and actively making things happen in your own life. When we pursue activities and behaviors that are intrinsically motivated and aligned with our personal goals, we feel happier, more in control, and more capable.