Prion Diseases

Prion diseases, also known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are a group of rare, progressive neurodegenerative disorders caused by misfolded forms of the normal prion protein (PrP). In healthy brains, PrP is found on the surface of neurons and is thought to play a role in cell signalling and protection. In prion disease, however, the normal cellular prion protein (PrP^C) undergoes a conformational change into a pathogenic form (PrP^Sc), which becomes resistant to breakdown. These misfolded proteins aggregate into clumps that damage brain tissue, creating microscopic holes and giving the brain a “spongy” appearance under the microscope. Over time, this leads to widespread neuronal death, resulting in rapidly progressive dementia, loss of motor control, and ultimately death.

Prion diseases can arise sporadically, be inherited, or be acquired through exposure to infectious prions. Once started, prion propagation follows a template-directed misfolding process: PrP^Sc induces nearby PrP^C to adopt the abnormal shape, amplifying the disease cascade within the brain. Unlike viruses or bacteria, prions contain no nucleic acids, so they cannot be detected by standard microbiological methods and are unusually resistant to standard sterilization procedures. The hallmark of prion diseases is the long incubation period—often years—followed by a rapid clinical deterioration over months. There is currently no cure; management focuses on supportive care and symptom relief.

Types of Prion Diseases

1. Sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease (sCJD)
   This is the most common form, accounting for about 85% of human prion disease cases. It arises without known genetic mutation or exposure, typically in people aged 60–70. Patients develop rapidly advancing dementia, myoclonus (muscle jerks), and visual disturbances over weeks to months.

2. Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease (vCJD)
   Linked to consumption of beef products contaminated with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) prions, vCJD affects younger individuals (median age ~28). It presents with psychiatric symptoms, painful sensory disturbances, and later ataxia, followed by dementia.

3. Familial Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease (fCJD)
   Caused by inherited mutations in the PRNP gene, fCJD resembles sCJD clinically but often has an earlier onset and a slightly longer disease course. Common mutations include E200K and D178N.

4. Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker Syndrome (GSS)
   A rare, inherited prion disease with PRNP mutations such as P102L. It presents with prominent ataxia, slowly progressing over years, and later cognitive decline.

5. Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI)
   Linked to the D178N PRNP mutation coupled with methionine at codon 129, FFI features severe sleep disturbances, autonomic dysfunction, and motor signs. Death typically occurs within 12–18 months after onset.

6. Kuru
   Historically found among the Fore people of Papua New Guinea, Kuru was transmitted through ritual cannibalism of deceased relatives. It presented with tremors, ataxia, and fatal dementia. Kuru has virtually disappeared since cessation of cannibalistic rituals.

7. Iatrogenic Prion Disease
   Occurs through medical procedures, such as contaminated human growth hormone injections, dura mater grafts, corneal transplants, or use of neurosurgical instruments without adequate sterilization. The incubation can range from a few years to decades.

Causes of Prion Disease

1. Spontaneous Misfolding
   In sporadic cases, the normal prion protein randomly misfolds into the pathogenic form without identifiable trigger.

2. Genetic Mutations (PRNP)
   Mutations like E200K, D178N, V210I, and P102L alter the prion protein’s stability, predisposing it to misfold.

3. Consumption of Infected Meat
   Eating beef contaminated with BSE prions can transmit variant CJD to humans.

4. Iatrogenic Growth Hormone
   Use of human pituitary-derived growth hormone contaminated with prions has caused CJD in recipients.

5. Dura Mater Grafts
   Transplantation of dura mater harvested from infected donors can introduce prions.

6. Corneal Transplants
   Rare transmission via corneal grafts from donors with unrecognized prion disease.

7. Neurosurgical Instruments
   Reuse of instruments not fully decontaminated can carry prions from patient to patient.

8. Electroencephalogram (EEG) Electrodes
   Inadequately sterilized depth electrodes and EEG probes have transmitted disease.

9. Blood Transfusions
   Although rare, vCJD has been transmitted via transfused prion-contaminated blood products.

10. Polymorphism at Codon 129
    Homozygosity for methionine or valine at PRNP codon 129 influences susceptibility and incubation time.

11. Age-Related Protein Clearance Decline
    Older age may reduce cellular ability to clear misfolded proteins, facilitating accumulation.

12. Gender
    Slight male predominance in sCJD suggests possible hormonal or genetic modifiers.

13. Occupational Exposure
    Laboratory workers handling prion-infected tissues face an elevated risk if safety protocols fail.

14. Environmental Prion Contamination
    Prions in soil near farms with scrapie-infected sheep may pose theoretical transmission risk.

15. Traumatic Brain Injury
    Injury may alter local prion protein processing and clearance, though evidence remains limited.

16. Chronic Inflammation
    Persistent neuroinflammation could accelerate misfolded protein spread, acting as a cofactor.

17. Oxidative Stress
    Excess reactive oxygen species may destabilize prion proteins, promoting misfold.

18. Metalloprotein Dysregulation
    Metal ions (copper, manganese) interact with PrP^C; imbalance may influence misfolding.

19. Lipid Raft Alterations
    Changes in neuronal membrane domains can affect prion protein localization and conversion.

20. Cellular Clearance Pathway Defects
    Impaired autophagy or proteasome function reduces removal of misfolded proteins, fostering disease.

 Symptoms of Prion Disease

1. Rapidly Progressive Dementia
   Marked decline in memory, reasoning, and judgment over weeks to months.

2. Myoclonus
   Sudden, shock-like muscle jerks that often worsen with startle.

3. Ataxia
   Loss of coordination affecting gait and limb movements, leading to frequent falls.

4. Visual Disturbances
   Blurred vision, visual field defects, or cortical blindness in some forms.

5. Behavioural Changes
   Personality shifts, apathy, irritability, or depression early in the course.

6. Insomnia
   Especially prominent in Fatal Familial Insomnia, with inability to initiate or maintain sleep.

7. Dysarthria and Dysphagia
   Slurred speech and difficulty swallowing as brain regions controlling these functions degenerate.

8. Hyperreflexia
   Exaggerated deep tendon reflexes reflecting upper motor neuron involvement.

9. Extrapyramidal Signs
   Rigidity, tremor, and bradykinesia resembling Parkinsonism in some patients.

10. Hallucinations
    Visual or auditory perceptions without external stimuli, more common in vCJD.

11. Seizures
    Generalized or focal, though less common than other neurological symptoms.

12. Akinetic Mutism
    Late-stage profound apathy and immobility, where the patient appears awake but unresponsive.

13. Choreoathetoid Movements
    Uncontrolled, writhing movements of limbs in select cases.

14. Autonomic Dysfunction
    Blood pressure fluctuations, sweating abnormalities, and heart rate irregularities.

15. Urinary Incontinence
    Loss of bladder control as frontal lobe and spinal pathways degenerate.

16. Weight Loss
    Rapid and unexplained due to dysphagia and metabolic changes.

17. Muscle Weakness
    Progressive weakness from both central and peripheral nervous system involvement.

18. Sensory Changes
    Paresthesias or numbness reflecting cortical or thalamic damage.

19. Language Impairment
    Aphasia with difficulty finding words or understanding speech.

20. Fatigue and Lethargy
    Severe tiredness and lack of energy, often early and persistent.

Diagnostic Tests for Prion Disease

Physical Examination

1. General Neurological Exam
   Assessment of mental status, cranial nerves, motor and sensory function to detect early deficits.

2. Coordination Testing
   Observation of gait, heel-to-shin, and finger-to-nose to quantify ataxia.

3. Reflex Assessment
   Testing deep tendon reflexes and pathological reflexes (e.g., Babinski sign).

4. Romberg Test
   Evaluates proprioceptive function by observing patient stability with eyes closed.

Manual (Neurological) Tests

1. Finger Tap Test
   Measures rapid alternating movements to detect dysdiadochokinesia.
2. Pronator Drift
   Patient holds arms extended; downward pronation indicates upper motor neuron lesion.
3. Tandem Gait
   Walking heel-to-toe in a straight line to reveal subtle balance issues.
4. Cognitive Screening
   Simple bedside tests like Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE) to quantify cognitive decline.

Lab and Pathological Tests

1. CSF 14-3-3 Protein
   Elevated levels suggest rapid neuronal injury; supportive but not definitive.
2. CSF Total Tau Protein
   High tau reflects neuronal degeneration; rises in prion and other dementias.
3. CSF Real-Time Quaking-Induced Conversion (RT-QuIC)
   Highly sensitive assay detecting PrP^Sc seeding activity.
4. PRNP Gene Sequencing
   Identifies pathogenic mutations in inherited prion disease.
5. Blood Tests for Exclusion
   Thyroid, autoimmune, and vitamin assays to rule out reversible dementias.
6. Electrolyte and Metabolic Panels
   Ensures that metabolic derangements are not mimicking prion symptoms.
7. Brain Biopsy
   Histopathology and immunostaining for definitive PrP^Sc—rarely performed due to risk.
8. Post-mortem Neuropathology
   Gold standard, showing spongiform change, gliosis, and PrP^Sc plaques.

Electrodiagnostic Tests

1. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
   Periodic sharp-wave complexes at ~1 Hz support sCJD diagnosis.
2. Polysomnography
   Sleep study revealing disrupted sleep architecture, especially in FFI.
3. Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEP)
   Slowed conduction times reflecting cortical dysfunction.
4. Nerve Conduction Studies
   To exclude peripheral neuropathies mimicking sensory signs.
5. Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP)
   Delayed responses indicating visual pathway involvement.
6. Electromyography (EMG)
   Evaluates muscle and nerve function to exclude motor neuron diseases.

Imaging Tests

1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
   Hyperintense signals in basal ganglia or cortex on diffusion-weighted imaging.
2. FLAIR MRI
   Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery highlights cortical ribboning.
3. Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
   Detects microstructural white matter changes early in disease.
4. Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)
   Measures brain metabolites; reduced N-acetylaspartate indicates neuronal loss.
5. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
   Decreased glucose uptake in affected regions on FDG-PET scans.
6. Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
   Regional blood flow reductions matching neurodegeneration patterns.
7. Computed Tomography (CT) Scan
   Often normal but used to exclude stroke, tumor, or hydrocephalus.
8. Volumetric MRI Analysis
   Quantifies brain atrophy over time in research settings.
9. High-Resolution Ultrasound
   Experimental use for superficial tissue prion detection.
10. Dual-Energy CT
    Under investigation for subtle brain density changes.
11. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)
    Research tool evaluating retinal nerve fiber layer thinning.
12. Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
    Measures magnetic fields from neuronal activity; experimental.
13. Cerebral Blood Flow MRI (ASL)
    Arterial spin labeling reveals hypoperfusion in prion-affected cortex.
14. Functional MRI (fMRI)
    Maps task-related brain activation deficits.
15. Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging (DKI)
    Advanced diffusion method to detect microstructural complexity loss.
16. Ultra-High-Field MRI (7 Tesla)
    Research use for detailed prion plaque visualization.
17. CT Perfusion
    Measures cerebral blood volume and flow; primarily research.
18. Sodium MRI
    Experimental technique assessing ionic homeostasis in prion-damaged tissue.

Non-Pharmacological Treatments

Physiotherapy & Electrotherapy Techniques

1. Active-Assisted Range-of-Motion (AAROM) – Therapists guide the patient’s limbs through gentle arcs to keep joints supple, reduce contractures and maintain proprioceptive input; neuronal circuits thrive on movement even when strength fades.

2. Passive Stretching – Slow, sustained stretches prevent spasticity and tendon shortening, lowering later pain when rigidity rises.

3. Gait & Transfer Training – Parallel bars, harness-supported treadmills and weighted walkers rehearse step sequencing, delaying wheelchair dependence and the pneumonia risk tied to immobility.

4. Balance Platform Exercises – Wobble boards and foam pads stimulate vestibular pathways, trimming fall risk and boosting confidence in early disease.

5. Neuromuscular Re-education – Targeted cues and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation teach alternative recruitment patterns as cortical maps shift.

6. Electrical Muscle Stimulation (EMS) – Low-frequency pulses contract weak antigravity muscles, slowing atrophy and improving venous return.

7. Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) – High-frequency surface currents gate spinal pain signals, easing myalgias without opioids.

8. Transcranial Direct-Current Stimulation (tDCS) – Mild scalp currents modulate cortical excitability; pilot data hint at temporary cognitive and motor gains in rapidly progressive dementias.

9. Low-Level Laser Therapy – Near-infrared light boosts mitochondrial ATP in peripheral nerves, potentially easing neuropathic pain.

10. Vestibular Rehabilitation – Saccadic eye-head exercises recalibrate balance centers affected by cerebellar damage.

11. Respiratory Physiotherapy – Incentive spirometry, huff coughing and chest percussion clear secretions as bulbar control wanes.

12. Dysphagia & Speech Therapy – Oral-motor drills, texture modification and compensatory swallow postures guard against aspiration and maintain communication ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

13. Voice Therapy – Resonant humming and breath-support drills delay hypophonic speech; case reports show gains after just two weeks scholar.rochesterregional.org.

14. Positioning & Seating Ergonomics – Custom cushions, tilt-in-space chairs and pressure-relief mattresses avert pressure sores and improve pulmonary drainage.

15. Assistive-Device Training – Cane, rollator, ankle-foot orthosis or environmental controls (smart-home switches) preserve autonomy and reduce caregiver strain.

Mechanisms in brief: All 15 interventions exploit “activity-dependent neuroprotection”: repetitive sensory-motor input enhances synaptic plasticity, up-regulates brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and curbs stress-hormone spikes, thereby slowing secondary degeneration.

Exercise Therapies

16. Seated Cycling – Low-impact pedaling elevates cardiovascular fitness and endorphins without taxing balance.

17. Aquatic Therapy – Warm-water buoyancy supports weak limbs; hydrostatic pressure reduces edema.

18. Adaptive Tai Chi – Slow, choreographed shifts train trunk rotation and diaphragmatic breathing, cutting anxiety and stiffness.

19. Isometric Core Bracing – Static holds strengthen deep trunk muscles vital for sitting stability.

20. Hand-Eye Ball Toss – Lightweight ball drills keep cerebellar timing and visuomotor tracking active.

Mind-Body Therapies

21. Mindfulness Meditation – Brief (10-min) guided sessions mute limbic hyper-arousal, improve sleep and may epigenetically boost NR4A2, a neuron-survival gene pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

22. Music-Assisted Relaxation – Familiar songs tap autobiographical memory circuits, momentarily improving mood and orientation.

23. Guided Imagery for Pain – Visualizing calm scenes distracts cortical pain networks, letting patients tolerate therapy longer.

24. Caregiver-led Massage – Light effleurage triggers oxytocin release, easing agitation.

25. Breath-Focused Yoga (chair-adapted) – 4-7-8 breathing lowers sympathetic drive and blood pressure.

Educational Self-Management Tools

26. Disease-Progression Road-Map Sessions – Clear, stage-based expectations reduce family distress and help plan legal/financial steps.

27. Infection-Control Coaching – Demonstrations of glove use, instrument quarantine and bleach/NaOH decontamination stop accidental spread.

28. Nutrition Workshops – Thickened-fluid recipes prevent choking while keeping calorie density high.

29. Communication Aids Training – Picture boards, eye-gaze tablets or yes/no blink codes extend interaction into late disease.

30. Advanced-Directive Facilitation – Early, structured conversations empower patients before cognition fades.

Evidence-Based Drugs

Note: No medication stops PrP Sc formation outright, but several molecules show laboratory or early-human benefit, while others control symptoms such as myoclonus, pain or insomnia.

(Always individualize dosing for age, renal/hepatic function and drug interactions.)

Dietary Molecular Supplements

1. Omega-3 fatty acids (DHA 1000 mg/day) – Anti-inflammatory eicosanoid shift may cushion synaptic membranes.

2. Curcumin (500 mg bid with piperine) – Polyphenol binds beta-sheet rich proteins and scavenges ROS; mouse models show delayed PrP deposition.

3. Resveratrol (200 mg/day) – Activates SIRT1 pathways that up-regulate autophagy of mis-folded proteins.

4. Coenzyme Q10 (300 mg/day divided) – Mitochondrial electron-carrier restores ATP, reducing fatigue.

5. N-acetyl-cysteine (600 mg bid) – Replenishes glutathione, detoxifying aldehydes from neuronal stress.

6. Vitamin D3 (2000 IU/day) – Supports immune modulation and bone integrity in immobile patients.

7. Alpha-lipoic acid (300 mg bid) – Crosses BBB, chelates metal ions that catalyze oxidative damage.

8. Magnesium L-threonate (144 mg elemental/day) – Improves synaptic density in preclinical neurodegeneration studies.

9. Saffron extract (30 mg/day) – Crocin derivatives exhibit anti-amyloid effects.

10. Probiotic blend (≥10 B CFU/day) – Gut-brain axis modulation can tame systemic inflammation linked to rapid decline.

Additional Drugs (Bisphosphonates, Regenerative, Viscosupplement, Stem-Cell)

1. Alendronate 70 mg PO weekly – Bisphosphonate suppresses osteoclasts, preventing immobility-driven osteoporosis.

2. Zoledronic acid 5 mg IV yearly – Potent bisphosphonate for severe bone loss; infusion over 15 min.

3. Teriparatide 20 µg SC daily – Anabolic PTH analog stimulates osteoblasts, restoring vertebral strength.

4. Denosumab 60 mg SC every 6 months – RANKL antibody; bone preservation when renal disease limits bisphosphonates.

5. Hyaluronic acid 40 mg intra-articular (viscosupplement) – Lubricates knees in bed-confined patients with co-existing OA, easing turning discomfort.

6. Platelet-rich plasma (6 mL joint injection) – Growth factors enhance cartilage healing in sedentary joints.

7. Mesenchymal stem-cell IV infusion (1–2 ×10⁶ cells/kg) – Experimental systemic anti-inflammatory and neurotrophic support.

8. Neural stem-cell intracerebral graft (phase I studies) – Seeks to repopulate lost neurons; ethical approval required.

9. Bone-marrow-derived stem-cell intrathecal bolus (5 mL) – Pilot studies in ALS offer precedent; may deliver trophic cocktails.

10. Umbilical cord blood stem-cell IV (one-time 100 mL) – Allogeneic cells release exosomes that blunt micro-glial over-activation.

Surgeries & Invasive Procedures

1. Ommaya Reservoir Placement – Burr-hole insertion allows continuous intraventricular PPS delivery; reduces repeated lumbar taps; complication = subdural bleed.

2. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy (PEG) – Tube through abdominal wall for safe long-term nutrition once swallowing fails; extends life and prevents aspiration pneumonia.

3. Deep-Brain Stimulation (DBS) of Globus Pallidus – Experimental; aims to quell severe dystonia and myoclonus.

4. Programmable Ventriculoperitoneal Shunt – Manages hydrocephalus that can accompany inherited prion variants.

5. Stereotactic Brain Biopsy – Diagnostic when MRI/CSF biomarkers equivocal; tissue guides family counseling.

6. Tracheostomy – Enables ventilatory support in respiratory failure, facilitating weaning from sedation.

7. Intrathecal Baclofen Pump Implantation – Continuous spasticity control without systemic drowsiness.

8. Corneal Transplant (Keratoplasty) – Rarely required; variant CJD can produce corneal opacities—modern donor screening minimizes transmission risk.

9. Spinal Fusion for Pathological Fracture – Immobility-related osteoporosis fractures threaten spinal cord; fusion stabilizes and relieves pain.

10. Neural Stem-Cell Depot Insertion (biodegradable scaffold) – Clinical-trial setting; scaffold slowly releases cells and growth factors into lesion cavity.

Prevention Strategies

1. Ultra-High-Pressure Steam Sterilization (134 °C, 18 min) for neurosurgical tools merckmanuals.com.

2. 1–2 M Sodium Hydroxide or 20 000 ppm Hypochlorite Soak (1 h) before autoclaving.

3. Avoidance of Meat-and-Bone Meal in Cattle Feed – Curbed BSE outbreaks.

4. Selective Genetic Breeding (ARR/ARR sheep genotype) in agriculture to resist scrapie.

5. Single-Use Surgical Instruments for High-Risk Tissues (tonsil, cornea).

6. Strict Blood-Donor Deferral from residents in BSE-endemic years.

7. Traceback and Quarantine of iatrogenic graft sources (dura, pituitary hGH).

8. Comprehensive Neuropathology Registries to flag familial clusters early.

9. Public Education on Safe Game-Meat Handling—avoid brain/spinal cord in field dressing.

10. Lab Biosafety Level-3 for PrP Sc cultures to block laboratory accidents.

When to See a Doctor

Seek urgent neurological evaluation if you (or a loved one) notice rapidly progressive memory loss, sudden balance problems, unexplained jerking of limbs, visual hallucinations, or speech slurring that worsens over weeks. Early referral allows MRI diffusion-weighted imaging, CSF RT-QuIC assay and PRNP gene testing—vital for family counseling and enrolment into therapeutic trials.

Practical Do’s & Don’ts

Do

1. Keep vaccinations (flu, pneumonia) up to date to cut infection risk.

2. Use grab bars and non-slip mats to prevent fractures.

3. Maintain a daily movement or passive range-of-motion routine.

4. Label rooms and objects with large-print cue cards.

5. Store sharp tools out of reach as judgment declines.

Don’t
6. Don’t eat undercooked brain or spinal tissue from any animal.
7. Don’t reuse nail-clippers or razors after cutting infected skin.
8. Don’t postpone power-of-attorney paperwork—cognition can plummet quickly.
9. Don’t combine sedatives without physician oversight; respiratory drive may dip.
10. Don’t attempt home bleach sterilization of surgical steel instruments; use hospital-grade decontamination protocols.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Can prion disease be cured? – Not yet. Research into antibodies (PRN100) and gene silencers offers hope but is still experimental.

2. Is it contagious like the flu? – No. Transmission requires direct contact with infected brain/spinal tissue or certain medical products.

3. How fast does it progress? – Median survival is roughly a year for sporadic CJD, longer for some genetic forms.

4. Does a normal MRI rule it out? – Early stages can look normal; diffusion-weighted MRI plus CSF RT-QuIC improves accuracy above 90 %.

5. Will my family get it? – Only 1 in 10 cases are inherited. A DNA test of the PRNP gene can clarify your risk.

6. Why are spine fractures common? – Prolonged bed rest thins bones; bisphosphonates and vitamin D mitigate this.

7. Are blood transfusions safe? – Modern screening has all but eliminated variant CJD transmission.

8. Can diet slow the disease? – A brain-healthy diet (omega-3, antioxidants) supports overall function but is not curative.

9. Is dental work risky? – Routine dentistry is safe; instruments contact low-risk tissue, yet prion-inactivation guidelines exist.

10. What causes the jerks and twitching? – Cortical disinhibition from neuronal loss; clonazepam or levetiracetam calm them.

11. Does stress make it worse? – Stress hormones accelerate neuro-inflammation; mindfulness and caregiver respite help.

12. Can children get prion disease? – Extremely rare; inherited PRNP mutations can present in teens.

13. Why do doctors talk about “CSF 14-3-3” protein? – It’s a neuron-injury marker; elevated levels support the diagnosis.

14. Will a pacemaker interfere with DBS? – Your neurosurgeon coordinates device frequencies to avoid crosstalk.

15. Is brain donation safe for science? – Yes—special containment labs handle tissue; your gift speeds therapy discovery.

Disclaimer: Each person’s journey is unique, treatment plan, life style, food habit, hormonal condition, immune system, chronic disease condition, geological location, weather and previous medical  history is also unique. So always seek the best advice from a qualified medical professional or health care provider before trying any treatments to ensure to find out the best plan for you. This guide is for general information and educational purposes only. Regular check-ups and awareness can help to manage and prevent complications associated with these diseases conditions. If you or someone are suffering from this disease condition bookmark this website or share with someone who might find it useful! Boost your knowledge and stay ahead in your health journey. We always try to ensure that the content is regularly updated to reflect the latest medical research and treatment options. Thank you for giving your valuable time to read the article.

The article is written by Team RxHarun and reviewed by the Rx Editorial Board Members

Last Updated: June 25, 2025.

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