Gradenigo syndrome is a rare condition that happens when an infection in the middle ear (otitis media) spreads into the tip of the temporal bone called the petrous apex. This spread causes inflammation (petrous apicitis), which can affect nearby nerves—the abducens nerve (sixth cranial nerve) that controls outward eye movement, and the trigeminal nerve (fifth cranial nerve) that carries sensation from the face. Classically, it presents with a triad of persistent ear discharge (otorrhea), severe pain around the eye (retro-orbital pain), and double vision (from abducens palsy). It was first described by Giuseppe Gradenigo in 1904, before antibiotics made it rare WikipediaPubMed Central.
Gradenigo Syndrome is a rare but serious condition that occurs when an infection spreads from the middle ear into the petrous apex of the temporal bone, causing a condition known as petrous apicitis. It is classically defined by a triad of symptoms: persistent ear discharge (suppurative otitis media), severe facial pain in areas served by the trigeminal nerve, and weakness of the lateral rectus muscle leading to double vision (abducens nerve palsy) EyeWikiAmerican Academy of Neurology. Immediate recognition and treatment are crucial to prevent life-threatening complications like meningitis or brain abscess.
When bacteria from an ear infection move into the petrous apex, they inflame the air cells and bone there. The abducens nerve passes through a narrow canal (Dorello’s canal) just beneath the petrous apex, and the trigeminal ganglion sits nearby in Meckel’s cave. Swelling and pus in these spaces press on those nerves, causing eye-movement problems and facial pain. If untreated, the infection can extend further into the skull, leading to meningitis or brain abscess Radiopaediajournalmc.org.
Types
Classic Gradenigo Syndrome
This “complete” form includes all three core features: ongoing ear discharge, retro-orbital pain in the trigeminal distribution, and abducens nerve palsy causing inability to move the eye outward Radiopaedia.
Incomplete Gradenigo Syndrome
Many patients do not show the full triad. Incomplete cases may have only two of the three signs—often otorrhea plus one neurological symptom—or rarely just the nerve findings without obvious ear discharge PubMed Central.
Atypical Gradenigo Syndrome
Some infections spread to involve additional cranial nerves beyond V and VI, such as the facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), or vagus (X) nerves. These cases may present with facial weakness, swallowing difficulty, or voice changes alongside the classic features .
Acute vs. Chronic Petrous Apicitis
Although technically not separate syndromes, petrous apicitis can be acute (rapid onset, high fever, severe symptoms) or chronic (insidious onset, low-grade fever, long-standing ear problems). Chronic forms more often underlie Gradenigo syndrome in adults.
Causes
Acute Suppurative Otitis Media
A sudden, pus-forming bacterial infection of the middle ear that can spread to the petrous apex.Chronic Suppurative Otitis Media
Long-standing middle-ear infection with persistent discharge increases risk of bone involvement.Acute Mastoiditis
Infection of the mastoid air cells behind the ear can track into the petrous apex.Chronic Mastoiditis
Repeated or persistent mastoid infections create pathways for deeper bone infection.Petrous Apicitis
Direct infection of the petrous apex itself, often the immediate cause of Gradenigo symptoms.Cholesteatoma
Expanding keratin-filled cysts in the middle ear can erode bone and introduce infection deeper.Skull Base Osteomyelitis
Bacterial infection of the skull base bone, sometimes secondary to ear or sinus infections.Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
Tumors at the skull base can block drainage and invite secondary infections.Temporal Bone Malignancy
Cancers here may weaken bone defenses and allow infection to take hold.Radiation Osteoradionecrosis
Radiation therapy to the head and neck can damage bone, making it prone to infection.Skull Base Fracture
Trauma that cracks the petrous apex can let bacteria enter the bone.Diabetes Mellitus
High blood sugars impair immune defense, raising infection risk.Immunosuppression
Conditions like HIV/AIDS or steroid use decrease the body’s ability to fight ear infections.Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection
This aggressive germ often causes chronic ear infections that penetrate bone.Streptococcus pneumoniae Infection
A common cause of acute otitis media that can also invade deeper tissues.Haemophilus influenzae Infection
Another frequent otitis media pathogen capable of bone involvement.Staphylococcus aureus Infection
Known for forming abscesses, it can infect the petrous apex if given access.Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Rarely, tuberculosis of the ear leads to chronic bone infection.Fungal Otitis Media (e.g., Aspergillus)
Fungal species can infect damaged ear structures, especially in immunocompromised hosts.Eustachian Tube Dysfunction
Poor middle-ear ventilation leads to fluid buildup and recurring infections.
Symptoms
Ear Pain (Otalgia)
A deep, often throbbing ache in the middle ear region that worsens with movement.Ear Discharge (Otorrhea)
Persistent pus or fluid draining from the ear canal.Retro-orbital Pain
Sharp or burning pain behind the eye, following the V1 (ophthalmic) branch of the trigeminal nerve.Double Vision (Diplopia)
Seeing two images when looking straight ahead, due to sixth-nerve palsy.Lateral Rectus Weakness
Inability to move the affected eye laterally, causing inward deviation.Facial Numbness
Loss of sensation in parts of the face served by trigeminal V1 or V2 branches.Hearing Loss
Reduced hearing on the affected side due to middle-ear involvement.Tinnitus
Ringing or buzzing sounds in the ear.Vertigo
A spinning sensation from inner-ear inflammation or vestibular involvement.Photophobia
Sensitivity to light, often accompanying severe trigeminal pain.Fever
Elevated body temperature signaling systemic infection.Headache
Generalized or focal pain, sometimes from meningeal irritation.Facial Weakness
Drooping or asymmetry when the facial nerve (VII) is secondarily involved.Dysphagia
Difficulty swallowing if the glossopharyngeal (IX) or vagus (X) nerves are affected.Neck Stiffness
Limited neck movement from nearby meningeal inflammation.
Diagnostic Tests
Physical Exam
Otoscopy
A lighted scope inspection of the ear canal and eardrum to look for perforation, pus, or bone erosion.Mastoid Palpation
Pressing over the mastoid bone to check for tenderness and swelling.Cranial Nerve Exam
Systematic testing of eye movements, facial sensation, and other nerve functions.Ocular Motility Testing
Observing the patient follow targets to reveal abducens palsy.
Manual Tests
Weber Tuning-Fork Test
A vibrating fork placed on top of the head to compare sound lateralization.Rinne Tuning-Fork Test
Comparing bone-conduction vs. air-conduction by moving the fork from mastoid to ear.Tragus Pressure (Fistula) Test
Pressing the tragus to see if it moves fluid and elicits dizziness or pain.Mastoid Percussion
Gentle tapping over the mastoid to assess for deeper bone involvement.
Lab & Pathological Tests
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Checks for high white blood cells indicating infection.Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)
Measures inflammation in the body.C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
Another marker that rises with acute infection.Microbial Culture of Ear Discharge
Grows bacteria or fungi to identify the exact germ and choose antibiotics.
Electrodiagnostic Tests
Electromyography (EMG) of Lateral Rectus
Measures muscle electrical activity to confirm abducens nerve weakness.Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR)
Tests hearing nerve pathways for latency delays.Nerve Conduction Studies (ENoG)
Evaluates facial nerve function if paralysis occurs.Electronystagmography (ENG)
Records involuntary eye movements to assess vestibular involvement.
Imaging Tests
Computed Tomography (CT) Scan
High-resolution bone windows show opacification or bone destruction in the petrous apex JAMA Network.Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Highlights soft-tissue inflammation, nerve involvement, and any abscesses PubMed Central.Contrast-Enhanced MRI
Provides clearer borders of infection vs. healthy tissue.Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Less common but can show metabolic activity in chronic cases.
Non-Pharmacological Treatments
Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy
Description: The patient breathes 100% oxygen in a pressurized chamber.
Purpose: To enhance oxygen delivery to infected bone and soft tissue.
Mechanism: High-pressure oxygen dissolves more deeply into tissues, impairing anaerobic bacteria and promoting healing by stimulating new blood vessel formation PubMedPubMed.
Manual Ear Toileting
Description: Gently removing pus and debris from the ear canal using suction or irrigation.
Purpose: To reduce bacterial load and improve subsequent treatments.
Mechanism: Clearing exudate prevents bacterial proliferation and allows topical agents or antibiotics to reach deeper tissues.
Steam Inhalation
Description: Inhaling warm, moist air via a bowl of hot water or humidifier.
Purpose: To soothe mucosal surfaces and promote drainage.
Mechanism: Warm moisture loosens secretions in the eustachian tube, improving middle ear ventilation.
Abducens Palsy Physiotherapy
Description: Eye-movement exercises guided by a physiotherapist.
Purpose: To accelerate recovery of lateral eye muscle strength and coordination.
Mechanism: Regular, targeted movement stimulates nerve regeneration and prevents muscle atrophy SAGE Journals.
Warm Compresses
Description: Applying a warm, damp cloth over the affected area.
Purpose: To relieve pain and improve blood flow.
Mechanism: Heat dilates vessels, enhances circulation, and can reduce nerve-mediated discomfort.
Cold Packs
Description: Applying a cool pack wrapped in cloth to the temple or eye region.
Purpose: To reduce inflammation and numb acute pain.
Mechanism: Cold constricts blood vessels and slows nerve conduction, decreasing swelling and pain perception.
Cranial Osteopathy
Description: Gentle manipulation of cranial bones by a trained osteopath.
Purpose: To improve cerebrospinal fluid flow and relieve tension.
Mechanism: Subtle adjustments aim to normalize cranial rhythm, reduce pressure, and support natural drainage.
Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS)
Description: Low-voltage electrical current applied via adhesive pads near the ear.
Purpose: To modulate pain signals and provide non-drug relief.
Mechanism: Electrical impulses stimulate endorphin release and block pain pathways in the spinal cord.
Acupuncture
Description: Insertion of fine needles at specific points on the head and face.
Purpose: To alleviate facial pain and promote nerve recovery.
Mechanism: Stimulates release of endogenous opioids and modulates inflammatory mediators.
Mindfulness and Relaxation Techniques
Description: Guided breathing, meditation, or progressive muscle relaxation.
Purpose: To reduce stress-related pain amplification.
Mechanism: Lowers cortisol levels, decreases sympathetic nervous system activity, and improves pain coping.
Gentle Neck Stretching
Description: Slow, controlled movements of the neck muscles.
Purpose: To relieve referred pain and tension in the jaw and neck.
Mechanism: Stretching reduces muscle spasm and improves local circulation.
Nasal Saline Irrigation
Description: Rinsing the nasal passages with saline solution.
Purpose: To decrease eustachian tube congestion.
Mechanism: Flushes allergens and secretions, promoting better middle ear ventilation.
Hydration and Rest
Description: Drinking plenty of fluids and limiting physical activity.
Purpose: To support immune function and tissue repair.
Mechanism: Hydration maintains mucosal integrity; rest conserves energy for healing.
Nutritional Counseling
Description: Dietitian-led advice on nutrient-dense foods.
Purpose: To ensure optimal support for the immune response.
Mechanism: Adequate protein, vitamins, and minerals are necessary for cell repair and microbial defense.
Lymphatic Drainage Massage
Description: Light massage around the head and neck to promote fluid movement.
Purpose: To reduce tissue edema and improve toxin clearance.
Mechanism: Gentle pressure directs lymph flow towards cervical lymph nodes for filtration.
Proprioceptive Exercises for Balance
Description: Standing on uneven surfaces or practicing targeted balance drills.
Purpose: To counteract dizziness from inner ear involvement.
Mechanism: Re-educates vestibular pathways and strengthens postural control.
Yoga and Tai Chi
Description: Low-impact movement routines focusing on breath and posture.
Purpose: To improve overall well-being and stress resilience.
Mechanism: Combines gentle stretching, mindfulness, and controlled breathing to modulate pain and inflammation.
Photobiomodulation (Low-Level Laser Therapy)
Description: Application of low-power lasers to affected areas.
Purpose: To reduce inflammation and speed tissue repair.
Mechanism: Laser photons stimulate mitochondrial activity, enhancing cell regeneration.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Description: Psychological sessions to reframe pain perception.
Purpose: To improve pain coping strategies and reduce anxiety.
Mechanism: Teaches thought-behavior techniques that can modulate central pain processing.
Electroacupuncture
Description: Acupuncture combined with mild electrical stimulation.
Purpose: To enhance analgesic effects beyond traditional acupuncture.
Mechanism: Electrical pulses at acupuncture points boost endorphin release and nerve recovery.
Drug Treatments
Ceftriaxone
Class: Third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic
Dosage: 2 g IV every 24 hours
Time: Once daily infusion
Purpose: To cover common middle ear pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae
Mechanism: Inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis
Side Effects: Diarrhea, injection site pain, allergic reactions PubMed CentralPubMed
Ceftazidime
Class: Third-generation cephalosporin
Dosage: 2 g IV every 8 hours
Time: Every 8 hours infusion
Purpose: Broad coverage including Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Mechanism: Binds penicillin-binding proteins to inhibit cell wall synthesis
Side Effects: Rash, neutropenia, Clostridioides difficile infection Wiley Online Library
Ampicillin-Sulbactam
Class: Beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor
Dosage: 3 g IV every 6 hours
Time: Four times daily infusion
Purpose: To target beta-lactamase-producing organisms
Mechanism: Ampicillin disrupts cell wall; sulbactam inhibits beta-lactamase enzymes
Side Effects: Diarrhea, allergic reaction
Piperacillin-Tazobactam
Class: Extended-spectrum penicillin/beta-lactamase inhibitor
Dosage: 4.5 g IV every 6 hours
Time: Four times daily infusion
Purpose: Empiric coverage for severe or resistant infections
Mechanism: Piperacillin disrupts cell wall; tazobactam inhibits beta-lactamases
Side Effects: Electrolyte disturbances, thrombocytopenia
Metronidazole
Class: Nitroimidazole antibiotic
Dosage: 500 mg IV every 8 hours
Time: Three times daily infusion
Purpose: To cover anaerobic bacteria in the petrous apex
Mechanism: Disrupts DNA helical structure and inhibits nucleic acid synthesis
Side Effects: Metallic taste, neuropathy
Clindamycin
Class: Lincosamide antibiotic
Dosage: 600 mg IV every 8 hours
Time: Three times daily infusion
Purpose: Alternative in penicillin-allergic patients, covers anaerobes
Mechanism: Inhibits 50S ribosomal subunit, blocking protein synthesis
Side Effects: C. difficile colitis, rash
Ciprofloxacin
Class: Fluoroquinolone antibiotic
Dosage: 400 mg IV every 12 hours
Time: Twice daily infusion
Purpose: Target Pseudomonas when suspected or culture-proven
Mechanism: Inhibits DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV
Side Effects: Tendonitis, QT prolongation
Vancomycin
Class: Glycopeptide antibiotic
Dosage: 15–20 mg/kg IV every 8–12 hours
Time: Adjusted per trough levels
Purpose: MRSA coverage if risk factors present
Mechanism: Inhibits cell wall peptidoglycan synthesis
Side Effects: Nephrotoxicity, “Red man” syndrome
Dexamethasone
Class: Corticosteroid
Dosage: 10 mg IV once daily
Time: Daily infusion for 3–5 days
Purpose: To reduce inflammation and nerve edema
Mechanism: Binds glucocorticoid receptors, suppresses inflammatory gene expression
Side Effects: Hyperglycemia, immunosuppression PubMed
Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG)
Class: Passive immunotherapy
Dosage: 0.4 g/kg/day for 5 days
Time: Daily infusion
Purpose: To boost host immunity in severe or refractory cases
Mechanism: Provides pooled antibodies to neutralize pathogens and modulate inflammation
Side Effects: Headache, thromboembolic events ResearchGate
Dietary Molecular and Herbal Supplements
Curcumin (500 mg twice daily)
Omega-3 Fatty Acids (EPA + DHA ≥ 2 g/day)
Function: Modulating inflammation and supporting nerve health.
Mechanism: Compete with arachidonic acid, producing less inflammatory eicosanoids PubMed CentralFrontiers.
Vitamin C (500 mg twice daily)
Function: Antioxidant, supports collagen synthesis for tissue repair.
Mechanism: Scavenges free radicals and regenerates other antioxidants.
Vitamin D (2000 IU daily)
Function: Immunomodulation and bone health support.
Mechanism: Regulates immune cell function via vitamin D receptors.
Zinc (20 mg daily)
Function: Wound healing and immune defense.
Mechanism: Cofactor for DNA synthesis and antioxidant enzyme activities.
Magnesium (250 mg daily)
Function: Nerve function and muscle relaxation.
Mechanism: Modulates NMDA receptors and calcium flow in neurons.
Boswellia Serrata (300 mg three times daily)
Function: Reducing joint and tissue inflammation.
Mechanism: Inhibits 5-lipoxygenase, decreasing leukotriene production.
Bromelain (500 mg three times daily)
Function: Proteolytic anti-inflammatory effect.
Mechanism: Breaks down inflammatory mediators and fibrin.
Quercetin (500 mg twice daily)
Function: Antihistamine and antioxidant action.
Mechanism: Stabilizes mast cells, inhibits histamine release.
Green Tea Extract (300 mg daily)
Function: Antioxidant support for nerve and tissue health.
Mechanism: Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) scavenges free radicals.
N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) (600 mg twice daily)
Function: Precursor to glutathione, an important antioxidant.
Mechanism: Restores intracellular glutathione and reduces oxidative stress.
Probiotics (≥ 1 × 10⁹ CFU daily)
Function: Gut-immune axis support.
Mechanism: Modulates gut flora, enhancing mucosal immunity.
Melatonin (3 mg nightly)
Function: Antioxidant and sleep regulation.
Mechanism: Scavenges free radicals and regulates circadian rhythms.
Coenzyme Q10 (100 mg twice daily)
Function: Mitochondrial energy support and antioxidant.
Mechanism: Participates in electron transport chain, reduces oxidative damage.
Garlic Extract (600 mg daily)
Function: Broad antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties.
Mechanism: Allicin inhibits bacterial growth and reduces cytokine release.
Regenerative and Stem Cell Agents
Filgrastim (G-CSF)
Dosage: 5 µg/kg SC daily for 3 days
Function: Stimulates neutrophil production to combat infection.
Mechanism: Binds G-CSF receptors on bone marrow progenitors Wikipedia.
Sargramostim (GM-CSF)
Dosage: 250 µg/m² SC daily for 5 days
Function: Broadly stimulates granulocyte and macrophage lineages.
Mechanism: Activates progenitor cells to enhance innate immunity.
Erythropoietin
Dosage: 40,000 IU SC weekly
Function: Supports oxygen delivery to healing tissues.
Mechanism: Stimulates red blood cell production, improving tissue oxygenation.
Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF-BB)
Dosage: 100 µg locally once
Function: Promotes angiogenesis and tissue regeneration.
Mechanism: Binds PDGF receptors to activate fibroblast proliferation.
Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 (BMP-2)
Dosage: 1.5 mg implanted at surgical site
Function: Stimulates bone healing and remodeling.
Mechanism: Induces osteoblast differentiation and new bone formation.
Autologous Mesenchymal Stem Cell Concentrate
Dosage: 10 × 10⁶ cells locally injected
Function: Provides multipotent cells for tissue repair.
Mechanism: Differentiates into osteoblasts and fibroblasts, secretes healing cytokines.
Surgical Procedures
Mastoidectomy
Procedure: Removal of infected mastoid air cells via a postauricular approach.
Why: To eliminate the nidus of infection and improve drainage PubMed Central.
Petrous Apicectomy
Procedure: Surgical removal of the petrous apex bone.
Why: To access and drain deeply seated abscesses in the petrous apex.
Myringotomy with Tympanostomy Tube Insertion
Procedure: Incision in the eardrum and placement of a ventilation tube.
Why: To equalize pressure, drain middle ear fluid, and prevent recurrence.
Translabyrinthine Approach
Procedure: Surgical corridor through the inner ear structures.
Why: Offers direct access to lesions at the petrous apex when preserving hearing is less critical.
Endoscopic Petrous Apex Drainage
Procedure: Minimally invasive endoscopic opening of the petrous apex to allow drainage.
Why: Reduces morbidity by avoiding large bone resections and provides direct visualization.
Prevention Strategies
Prompt Treatment of Acute Otitis Media
Pneumococcal and Hib Vaccination
Regular ENT Follow-Up for Recurrent Ear Infections
Good Ear Hygiene (Keeping Ears Dry and Clean)
Avoiding Tobacco Smoke and Pollutants
Use of Ear Protection in Swimming
Breastfeeding Infants to Reduce AOM Risk
Hand Hygiene to Prevent Upper Respiratory Infections
Managing Allergies and Sinusitis Promptly
Avoiding Prolonged Bottle-Feeding in Supine Position
Preventive measures focus on reducing middle ear infections and improving overall ear health to minimize the risk of petrous apicitis and subsequent Gradenigo Syndrome Radiopaedia.
When to See a Doctor
Seek immediate medical attention if you experience:
Persistent severe ear pain or discharge lasting more than 48 hours
Sudden double vision or inability to move one eye sideways
Facial numbness or severe headache
High fever (> 38.5 °C) with ear symptoms
Signs of neurological involvement like weakness or altered mental status Cureus
Dietary Recommendations: What to Eat and What to Avoid
Eat:
Soft, nutrient-dense foods (soups, smoothies) to ease swallowing
Anti-inflammatory foods like berries, leafy greens, and fatty fish The Washington Post
Lean protein sources for tissue repair (chicken, legumes)
Hydrating fluids (water, herbal teas)
Bone-broth for collagen and minerals
Avoid:
Spicy or highly acidic foods that may irritate throat
Dairy if it increases mucus production and ear congestion
Alcohol and caffeine, which can dehydrate and impair healing
Processed sugars and fried foods that fuel inflammation
Smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Gradenigo Syndrome?
Gradenigo Syndrome is a complication of middle ear infection that spreads to the petrous apex of the skull, causing ear discharge, facial pain, and sixth nerve palsy EyeWiki.What causes Gradenigo Syndrome?
It arises when an acute or chronic otitis media extends into the petrous bone, leading to petrous apicitis.How is it diagnosed?
Diagnosis involves clinical triad recognition and imaging (CT/MRI) to confirm petrous apex involvement.What are common symptoms?
Persistent ear discharge, severe facial pain, and double vision are hallmarks.Is it life-threatening?
Without prompt treatment, it can lead to meningitis, brain abscess, or intracranial complications.Can children get Gradenigo Syndrome?
Yes—though less common, pediatric cases occur, especially with untreated ear infections.How long does treatment take?
Intensive therapy often lasts several weeks, with some interventions (e.g., IV antibiotics) for 2–4 weeks.Will I need surgery?
Most cases respond to medical therapy, but surgery is required if there is abscess formation or failed medical management.Can it recur?
Recurrence is rare if the underlying infection is fully eradicated and proper preventive measures are followed.What is the prognosis?
With timely antibiotics and supportive care, full recovery is expected in the majority of patients.Are there long-term complications?
Rarely, persistent cranial nerve deficits or hearing loss may occur if treatment is delayed.Can it be prevented?
Preventive vaccination and early treatment of ear infections greatly reduce risk.Is imaging always required?
Yes—CT or MRI is essential to confirm bony involvement and guide treatment.What specialists manage this condition?
ENT surgeons, infectious disease specialists, and neurologists often collaborate on care.Can I manage symptoms at home?
Supportive home care (ear hygiene, rest, hydration) complements but does not replace professional medical treatment.
Disclaimer: Each person’s journey is unique, treatment plan, life style, food habit, hormonal condition, immune system, chronic disease condition, geological location, weather and previous medical history is also unique. So always seek the best advice from a qualified medical professional or health care provider before trying any treatments to ensure to find out the best plan for you. This guide is for general information and educational purposes only. Regular check-ups and awareness can help to manage and prevent complications associated with these diseases conditions. If you or someone are suffering from this disease condition bookmark this website or share with someone who might find it useful! Boost your knowledge and stay ahead in your health journey. We always try to ensure that the content is regularly updated to reflect the latest medical research and treatment options. Thank you for giving your valuable time to read the article.
The article is written by Team RxHarun and reviewed by the Rx Editorial Board Members
Last Updated: August 05, 2025.
