Foshay-Mollaret cat scratch fever is an old medical name for what we now usually call cat-scratch disease or cat-scratch fever. It is a bacterial infection that happens after a scratch, bite, or lick on broken skin from an infected cat, most often a kitten. The germ is called Bartonella henselae, a small gram-negative bacterium that lives in cats and is spread between cats by fleas. In people, it mainly causes a small bump or blister at the injury site and swollen, tender lymph nodes near that area, often with mild fever and tiredness. Most cases get better on their own in a few weeks to a few months, but sometimes the infection can spread to the eyes, liver, spleen, brain, or heart, especially in people with weak immune systems.NCBI+2Wikipedia+2
Foshay-Mollaret cat scratch fever is an older name for cat-scratch disease, a usually mild infection caused by the bacterium Bartonella henselae after a scratch, bite, or lick from an infected cat, most often a kitten. It commonly causes a small bump at the scratch site, followed by swollen, painful lymph nodes and fever, and usually clears with supportive care, though serious complications can occur, especially in people with weak immune systems. Wikipedia+3WikiDoc+3Genome Center+3
Other names
Doctors and researchers have used many names for this disease over time. The term “Foshay-Mollaret cat scratch fever” comes from early researchers Foshay and Mollaret, who studied this illness in the mid-1900s. Today, the most common names are cat-scratch disease (CSD) and cat-scratch fever. Other medical synonyms include benign lymphoreticulosis, subacute regional lymphadenitis, Debré’s syndrome, Debré-Mollaret syndrome, Foshay-Mollaret cat-scratch fever, and inoculation lymphoreticulosis. In some eye cases, doctors use the term Parinaud oculoglandular syndrome for the eye form of cat-scratch disease with lymph node swelling near the ear. All these names describe the same basic infection caused by Bartonella henselae.WikiDoc+2Disease Ontology+2
Types
Doctors sometimes group Foshay-Mollaret cat scratch fever into different “types” based on how the illness behaves in the body. One useful way is to talk about classic localized disease, atypical or systemic disease, and disease in people with weak immune systems. This is not about different germs, but about different patterns of symptoms and organ involvement in the same infection.NCBI+1
In classic localized cat-scratch disease, the person has a small bump or blister at the scratch site and a few swollen, tender lymph nodes in one area, such as the armpit, neck, or groin. Fever is usually mild or absent, and the person feels a bit unwell but not very sick. This is the most common pattern, especially in children and teenagers, and it usually goes away on its own.Wikipedia+2Cleveland Clinic+2
In atypical or systemic disease, the infection spreads beyond the nearby lymph nodes. The person may have high fever, abdominal pain, weight loss, eye problems (such as red eye or vision changes), or signs of liver, spleen, brain, bone, or heart involvement. Conditions like neuroretinitis (eye-nerve inflammation), encephalopathy (brain irritation with confusion or seizures), or endocarditis (heart valve infection) are rare but serious forms of cat-scratch disease.NCBI+2Wikipedia+2
In immunocompromised disease, which affects people whose immune system is weak (for example from HIV, cancer treatment, or long-term steroids), Bartonella can cause more aggressive problems. These include bacillary angiomatosis (many red, vascular skin lesions and sometimes bone involvement) and bacillary peliosis (blood-filled spaces in the liver or spleen). These forms can be life-threatening and need prompt antibiotic treatment.NCBI+1
Causes
Cat scratch with broken skin:
The main cause of Foshay-Mollaret cat scratch fever is a scratch from a cat whose claws carry Bartonella henselae. When the claw breaks the skin, the bacteria can enter the tiny wound and start to multiply in the tissue and nearby lymph nodes. The wound may look small, but it is enough for infection to begin.NCBI+2Wikipedia+2Cat bite:
A bite from an infected cat can push Bartonella deep into the skin and soft tissue. Cat teeth are sharp and can create narrow puncture wounds that close quickly on top, trapping bacteria inside and giving them a good place to grow.NCBI+2Cleveland Clinic+2Cat licking open cuts or sores:
If an infected cat licks an area of broken skin, such as a cut, scrape, or insect bite, the bacteria in its saliva can enter the body. This may seem less dramatic than a scratch or bite, but it can still lead to cat-scratch disease, especially in children who may have many small skin breaks.CDC+1Kittens carrying more bacteria:
Young cats and kittens often carry more Bartonella in their blood than older cats. They also scratch and bite more during play. This combination makes kittens a strong source of the bacteria and a major cause of infection in people, even though the kittens themselves may look completely healthy.Wikipedia+1Flea infestation on cats:
Fleas move Bartonella henselae from cat to cat. Flea feces that contain the bacteria can get onto the cat’s fur and claws. When a cat scratches itself, the flea dirt and bacteria can get under its nails. Later, when the cat scratches a person, the bacteria are pushed into the person’s skin.Wikipedia+1Living with many cats:
People who live with several cats or who care for cats in shelters or rescues have more chances to be scratched or bitten. The more contacts and the more potential flea exposure, the higher the risk that at least one cat will carry Bartonella and transmit it.monarchinitiative.org+1Rough play with cats:
Playing rough games, like grabbing or chasing cats, makes scratches and bites more likely. Children and teenagers often play this way and may not wear protective clothing, so they are more often affected by cat-scratch fever.NCBI+1Not treating cat fleas:
If cat owners do not use flea control, fleas can stay on the cat and in the home environment. This allows Bartonella to circulate among cats for months or years, keeping the risk of human infection high.Wikipedia+1Warm climate and outdoor cats:
Warm, humid regions allow fleas to thrive. Outdoor cats in these areas often have more fleas and are more likely to carry Bartonella. People living in such climates, especially during fall and winter when kittens are common, may therefore have higher exposure.Wikipedia+1Weak immune system:
People with HIV, cancer, organ transplants, or long-term steroid or chemotherapy treatment have weaker immune defenses. They are more likely to develop severe or widespread disease once Bartonella enters their body, even from a minor scratch.NCBI+1Children and adolescents:
Younger people are more often affected because they are more likely to have close, playful contact with cats and are less careful about avoiding scratches and bites. Their behaviors, not their age alone, increase exposure.NCBI+1Lack of hand washing after handling cats:
If people do not wash their hands after playing with cats, any bacteria (or flea dirt containing bacteria) on their hands can stay there and later be rubbed into small cuts, eyes, or mouth, giving the pathogen an entry point.Minnesota Department of Health+1Not cleaning wounds promptly:
When a scratch or bite is not washed with soap and water, bacteria are more likely to survive on the skin and in the wound. Quick cleaning lowers the number of bacteria and may reduce the risk or severity of infection.Minnesota Department of Health+1Contact with infected dogs (rare):
Although cats are the main source, some reports show that dogs can sometimes transmit Bartonella through scratches or bites. This is uncommon, but it is still a possible cause in people who have close contact with dogs as well as cats.Wikipedia+1Occupational exposure (vets, shelter workers):
Veterinarians, veterinary nurses, animal control workers, and shelter staff handle many animals, including frightened or sick cats that scratch more. This frequent close contact increases their chance of getting cat-scratch disease.NCBI+1Exposure during cat breeding or rescue activities:
People who breed cats or run rescue operations often handle kittens, unvaccinated cats, and stray animals with high flea burdens. These settings can concentrate Bartonella infection and raise the risk for workers and volunteers.monarchinitiative.org+1Travel to high-risk regions:
Travelers visiting areas where stray cats and fleas are common may be scratched while feeding or playing with animals. Even a short stay with intense contact can be enough to acquire the disease.Wikipedia+1Previous lack of immunity:
Most people develop lasting immunity after one episode of typical cat-scratch disease, but before that first infection they are fully susceptible. In communities with many cats, people who have never been exposed before are at higher risk.Genome Center+1Household members sharing cat exposure:
If one family member is often scratched by a household cat, others who share that environment may also be at risk. The same infected cat and flea population can expose multiple people within the home.monarchinitiative.org+1Deliberate handling of stray or feral cats:
Feeding or rescuing feral cats is kind but can be risky, because these cats often have heavy flea infestations and unknown health status. Their defensive scratches and bites are a clear route for Bartonella to reach humans.monarchinitiative.org+1
Symptoms
Skin bump or blister at the scratch site:
Within a few days of the scratch or bite, a small red bump, blister, or crusted sore may appear at the exact place where the cat injured the skin. It may look like an insect bite and may not hurt much, so people often ignore it. This “inoculation lesion” is usually the first visible sign of infection.Wikipedia+1Swollen lymph nodes near the injury:
About one to three weeks later, lymph nodes that drain the injured area become enlarged, tender, and warm. For example, a scratch on the arm often leads to swollen nodes in the armpit. This regional lymphadenitis is the hallmark of Foshay-Mollaret cat scratch fever and can last for weeks or months.Wikipedia+2Genome Center+2Low-grade fever:
Many patients develop a mild fever, often less than 38.5°C (101.3°F). The fever may come and go and is often accompanied by chills or a general feeling of warmth and discomfort, reflecting the immune system’s reaction to the bacteria.CDC+2Cleveland Clinic+2Tiredness and weakness:
General fatigue is common. People say they feel “washed out” or have less energy for normal activities. This happens because the body is using energy to fight the infection and because inflammatory chemicals affect the brain and muscles.Wikipedia+1Headache:
Many patients report a dull headache that persists for days. This can be due to fever and systemic inflammation. In rare cases, severe headache can be a warning sign of central nervous system involvement, so it should be taken seriously if it is intense or unusual.Wikipedia+1Loss of appetite and mild weight loss:
People with cat-scratch disease often do not feel like eating, and as a result they may lose a small amount of weight. This is another general sign of infection and inflammation and usually improves as the illness gets better.Genome Center+1Muscle aches and joint pains:
Aching muscles and joints can appear even without visible swelling or redness. These pains are part of the body-wide immune response and can make movement uncomfortable, especially when fever is present.Wikipedia+1Skin rash beyond the scratch:
Some people develop a more widespread rash, with small red spots or papules on the body. This is less common but reflects a more generalized reaction to the infection rather than infection only at the scratch site.Wikipedia+1Abdominal pain or discomfort:
When the liver or spleen is involved, people may feel pain or fullness in the upper abdomen, especially on the left side where the spleen lies. Imaging may show enlarged organs, which is a sign that the infection has become more systemic.NCBI+2Wikipedia+2Eye redness and pain (Parinaud oculoglandular syndrome):
In some cases, the bacteria reach the eye, causing red, painful conjunctivitis along with swollen lymph nodes in front of the ear on the same side. This is called Parinaud’s oculoglandular syndrome and is a recognized form of cat-scratch disease.Wikipedia+1Blurred vision or visual changes:
If the optic nerve or retina is affected, patients may notice blurred vision, blind spots, or distortion of images. This condition, called neuroretinitis, is rare but important, because it can threaten sight if not recognized and treated.Wikipedia+1Confusion, seizures, or behavior changes:
In rare severe cases, the infection can involve the brain and cause encephalopathy. People may become confused, irritable, or have seizures. Any such symptoms in someone with recent cat exposure and lymph node swelling need urgent medical evaluation.Wikipedia+1Night sweats and prolonged fevers:
Some patients, especially with atypical or systemic disease, may have ongoing fevers, drenching night sweats, and more pronounced weight loss. These signs may mimic other serious conditions like lymphoma and prompt more extensive testing.NCBI+1Bone or joint swelling (rare):
Infrequently, Bartonella can infect bone or joints, causing localized pain, swelling, and sometimes difficulty moving the affected limb. Imaging may show lytic bone lesions or joint effusion, indicating deeper involvement.NCBI+1Heart-related symptoms (rare endocarditis):
A very small number of patients develop infection of heart valves (endocarditis), especially if they already have abnormal valves or are immunocompromised. They may have prolonged fever, shortness of breath, chest discomfort, or signs of heart failure. This is a serious complication and needs specialist care.NCBI+1
Diagnostic tests
Physical exam
General physical examination and vital signs:
The doctor first checks temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure, and looks at the overall appearance of the patient. Low-grade fever, tired look, and mild dehydration may be seen. A careful physical exam helps distinguish cat-scratch disease from other infections or serious conditions like sepsis or lymphoma.NCBI+1Inspection of the skin and scratch site:
The clinician looks closely at the skin for a small red bump, blister, or scab at the site of cat injury. They also check for any other rashes or lesions. Finding a typical inoculation lesion near the area drained by enlarged lymph nodes strongly supports the diagnosis.Wikipedia+2NCBI+2Palpation of lymph nodes:
The doctor feels (palpates) the lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, groin, and around the ears. In cat-scratch disease, one group of nodes is usually enlarged, tender, and sometimes warm or slightly fluctuant. This “regional lymphadenitis” pattern helps separate CSD from generalized lymph node diseases.NCBI+2Wikipedia+2Abdominal exam for liver and spleen:
The abdomen is examined to check for enlargement of the liver (hepatomegaly) or spleen (splenomegaly), which can happen in atypical disease. The doctor gently presses on the abdomen to feel edges of these organs and ask about pain or tenderness that might suggest deeper organ involvement.NCBI+1
Manual tests
Detailed eye examination:
If the patient has eye symptoms or swollen nodes near the ear, the doctor or eye specialist examines the eyes with a light and magnifying tools. They look at the conjunctiva, cornea, retina, and optic nerve. Redness, nodules on the conjunctiva, or optic nerve swelling can point toward ocular forms of cat-scratch disease.Wikipedia+1Neurological bedside assessment:
When there are headaches, confusion, or seizures, the clinician performs a simple neurological exam. They check memory, orientation, reflexes, muscle strength, sensation, and coordination. Abnormal findings may suggest brain involvement and guide further tests such as imaging or EEG.Wikipedia+1Joint and bone palpation and movement tests:
If bone or joint pain is present, the doctor gently presses and moves the affected area to locate tenderness, swelling, or reduced range of motion. These manual tests help decide whether imaging is needed to look for bone lesions or joint inflammation related to Bartonella infection.NCBI+1Cardiovascular examination:
In suspected endocarditis, the clinician listens to the heart with a stethoscope to detect new murmurs or changes in existing ones. They check for signs of heart failure, such as leg swelling or shortness of breath. These manual assessment steps support the decision to order echocardiography and blood tests.NCBI+1
Lab and pathological tests
Complete blood count (CBC):
A CBC measures white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. In classic cat-scratch disease, results may be normal or show mild changes only, but in more serious or systemic cases, white blood cell counts or inflammatory markers can be elevated. CBC also helps rule out blood cancers or other infections that can mimic lymph node swelling.MSD Manuals+1Inflammatory markers (ESR and CRP):
Blood tests like erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein (CRP) reflect the level of inflammation. They are often mildly to moderately raised in cat-scratch disease. These results are not specific but support the diagnosis and help track response to treatment over time.MSD Manuals+1Bartonella serology (antibody tests):
Serologic tests (usually indirect immunofluorescence or ELISA) measure antibodies against Bartonella henselae in the blood. A high or rising antibody titer can strongly support the diagnosis, especially when combined with a typical history of cat exposure and lymph node swelling. However, false negatives and positives can occur, so results are interpreted with clinical findings.NCBI+1Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for Bartonella DNA:
PCR testing can detect Bartonella genetic material in blood, lymph node tissue, or other samples. It has high specificity but variable sensitivity, meaning a positive result is very helpful, while a negative result does not fully exclude the disease. PCR is particularly useful in atypical or severe cases, or when serology is unclear.Wikipedia+2NCBI+2Blood cultures (mainly for endocarditis or severe disease):
Standard blood cultures sometimes detect Bartonella, but the organism is slow-growing and hard to culture, so results may be negative even when infection is present. Cultures are still important to rule out other bacteria and are part of the work-up when endocarditis or sepsis is suspected.NCBI+1Lymph node biopsy with histology and special stains:
If the diagnosis is uncertain or lymphoma is suspected, a sample of the swollen lymph node may be removed and studied under the microscope. Cat-scratch disease often shows granulomatous inflammation with central areas of necrosis and microabscesses. Special silver stains such as Warthin-Starry can highlight Bartonella organisms, although interpretation is difficult and not always sensitive.Wikipedia+2NCBI+2
Electrodiagnostic tests
Electroencephalogram (EEG):
In patients with seizures or confusion thought to be related to cat-scratch encephalopathy, an EEG can record electrical activity in the brain. It may show diffuse slowing or epileptiform discharges. Although not specific to Bartonella, EEG helps confirm brain involvement and guide seizure management and further imaging.Wikipedia+1Electromyography and nerve conduction studies (EMG/NCS):
When patients report persistent limb weakness, numbness, or tingling, EMG and nerve conduction tests can assess nerve and muscle function. Cat-scratch disease rarely causes neuropathy, but in atypical systemic forms these tests can document nerve involvement and direct rehabilitation and treatment.NCBI+1Electrocardiogram (ECG):
If endocarditis or myocarditis is suspected, an ECG records the heart’s electrical signals. It can show rhythm problems or conduction delays caused by inflammation or valve disease. This simple test is often combined with echocardiography and blood tests to evaluate heart involvement in severe cases.NCBI+1
Imaging tests
Ultrasound of lymph nodes and abdominal organs:
Ultrasound can image enlarged lymph nodes and detect internal changes such as fluid collections or abscesses. It is also useful for checking the liver and spleen for enlargement or lesions. Ultrasound is painless, does not use radiation, and is commonly used in children with cat-scratch disease.NCBI+1CT or MRI scans:
Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provide detailed pictures of lymph nodes, organs, and the brain. CT or MRI of the head may be ordered when there are neurological symptoms, and abdominal CT or MRI can show lesions in the liver, spleen, or bones. These scans help distinguish cat-scratch disease from cancers, abscesses from other causes, or other infections.Wikipedia+1Echocardiography (heart ultrasound):
In suspected Bartonella endocarditis, an echocardiogram shows the heart valves and chambers in motion. It can reveal vegetations (infected growths) on valves, valve leaks, or poor pumping function. Detecting these changes is vital for deciding on long-term antibiotic therapy and possible surgery.NCBI+1
Non-Pharmacological Treatments
1. Wound washing and local skin care
As soon as possible after a scratch or bite, gently wash the area with running water and mild soap for several minutes. This helps remove saliva, dirt, and flea feces that may carry Bartonella bacteria. Pat dry with a clean towel and avoid harsh scrubbing, which can irritate the skin. Good wound cleaning lowers the chance of infection spreading and is one of the simplest and most effective home steps. Cleveland Clinic+1
2. Warm compresses over swollen lymph nodes
Putting a warm (not hot), moist cloth over painful lymph nodes for 10–15 minutes several times a day can ease discomfort and improve blood flow. The warmth helps relax tight muscles around the node and may support natural drainage of fluid and inflammatory cells. This does not kill bacteria but can make swelling feel less tight and painful while the immune system clears the infection. Cleveland Clinic+1
3. Rest and activity pacing
Fatigue, low-grade fever, and body aches are common in cat scratch disease. Planned rest—such as short naps, reduced heavy exercise, and pacing daily tasks—helps the immune system focus on fighting the infection. Listening to early signs of tiredness and avoiding overexertion may shorten symptom duration and reduce complications, especially in children and people with other illnesses. Cleveland Clinic+1
4. Adequate hydration
Drinking enough fluids (water, oral rehydration drinks, clear broths) supports circulation, helps regulate body temperature during fever, and may prevent headaches and dizziness. Mild dehydration can worsen fatigue and make people feel sicker than they are. Small, frequent sips are often better tolerated in children or adults with nausea. Cleveland Clinic+1
5. Over-the-counter pain relief (under medical guidance)
Non-prescription pain relievers such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen can ease fever, headaches, and lymph node pain when used at label doses and after checking with a clinician—especially in children and people with liver, kidney, or stomach problems. They do not treat the bacteria but make symptoms more manageable while the infection runs its course. Aspirin should generally be avoided in children because of the risk of Reye’s syndrome. Cleveland Clinic+1
6. Gentle limb elevation
If lymph nodes in the arm or leg are very swollen, raising the limb on pillows above heart level when resting can reduce pressure and throbbing. Elevation helps venous blood and lymphatic fluid move back toward the body’s core. This is a simple, no-cost method that can be combined with warm compresses for added comfort. Cleveland Clinic+1
7. Cool packs for local skin irritation
In the first day or two, if the scratch or nearby skin feels hot and irritated, a cool (not freezing) pack wrapped in cloth for 10 minutes at a time can soothe itching and burning. Cooling slightly narrows blood vessels and can decrease local inflammation and discomfort. Ice should never be placed directly on the skin to avoid frost injury. Cleveland Clinic+1
8. Simple wound dressings
After cleaning, a small sterile bandage can protect the scratch from dirt and repeated trauma. The dressing should be changed daily or when wet, using clean hands. This barrier helps reduce secondary bacterial infections from other germs on the skin or in the environment, which could complicate cat scratch disease. Cleveland Clinic+1
9. Hand hygiene and household cleanliness
Regular handwashing with soap and water after handling cats, cleaning litter boxes, or touching the wound lowers the spread of Bartonella and other zoonotic germs among family members. Cleaning frequently touched surfaces and avoiding sharing towels over the wound area further reduces cross-contamination risk, especially in homes with immunocompromised people. Cleveland Clinic+1
10. Avoiding squeezing or cutting lymph nodes
People sometimes want to “pop” a swollen node or scratch scab, but this can worsen infection, push bacteria deeper, and cause scarring. Lymph node aspiration or drainage should only be done by trained clinicians using sterile technique, not at home. Leaving nodes intact allows the immune system to work safely inside them. AAFP+1
11. Sleep optimization
Regular sleep (7–9 hours for adults, more for children) supports immune functions such as antibody production and efficient white blood cell activity. Keeping a steady bedtime, limiting screen time before sleep, and resting in a dark, quiet room can help the body recover faster from cat scratch fever. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
12. Stress-reduction practices
Stress hormones such as cortisol can affect immune responses. Relaxation methods—deep breathing, brief meditation, gentle stretching, or quiet reading—may ease anxiety about illness and support overall immune balance. While they do not directly kill Bartonella, they can help people cope better with symptoms and recovery time. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
13. Local physiotherapy for residual stiffness
After large lymph nodes shrink, nearby muscles and joints can feel tight. Under professional guidance, gentle range-of-motion exercises and stretching help restore normal movement and reduce lingering discomfort in the neck, armpit, or groin without stressing the recovering tissues. AAFP+1
14. Eye protection and hygiene
If cat scratch disease affects the eye (Parinaud oculoglandular syndrome or neuroretinitis), avoiding rubbing the eye, using prescribed eye drops correctly, and wearing sunglasses outdoors can protect delicate eye tissues. Careful eyelid hygiene and follow-up with an eye specialist help prevent vision-threatening complications. Cleveland Clinic+1
15. Gentle stretching and light movement
Short walks and light stretching, when fever is controlled, support circulation, lung function, and mood. Movement should stay below the level that provokes fatigue or worsening pain. This balanced activity can reduce stiffness from prolonged rest and improve overall sense of well-being during recovery. Cleveland Clinic+1
16. Flea control for household cats
Because fleas spread B. henselae between cats, using veterinarian-recommended flea control products and keeping cats indoors lowers bacterial load in pets and decreases human infection risk. This is a crucial non-drug step that targets the source of the bacteria instead of only treating humans after infection occurs. Cleveland Clinic+2Wikipedia+2
17. Avoiding rough play with cats and kittens
Teaching children not to wrestle with cats, pull tails, or let kittens chew on fingers reduces scratches and bites. Calm handling and using toys instead of bare hands can maintain the emotional benefit of pets while lowering the chance of new Bartonella exposure or re-infection. Cleveland Clinic+1
18. Protective gloves for high-risk tasks
People who clean litter boxes, work in shelters, or handle feral cats—especially if they are immunocompromised—may benefit from disposable or washable gloves. Gloves reduce direct contact with claws, saliva, and flea dirt, adding an extra layer of protection beyond handwashing. Cleveland Clinic+1
19. Education for immunocompromised individuals
Patients with HIV, organ transplants, cancer treatment, or long-term steroids should receive clear counseling about risks of severe cat scratch disease, warning symptoms, and when to seek care early. Knowing the signs of systemic spread—such as persistent high fever or organ pain—can be life-saving. Cleveland Clinic+2Medscape+2
20. Supportive counseling
Chronic lymph node swelling or rare complications can cause anxiety about serious illnesses like lymphoma. Brief psychological support or counseling can help patients understand the good overall prognosis of cat scratch disease and manage fear, which in turn may improve adherence to follow-up and self-care advice. Genome Center+1
Drug Treatments
Antibiotics for cat-scratch disease must be chosen and dosed by a clinician. Many mild cases in people with normal immunity may not need antibiotics at all; antibiotics are more often used for severe disease, eye or organ involvement, or in immunocompromised patients. MSD Manuals+2AAFP+2
1. Azithromycin
Azithromycin is a macrolide antibiotic and is the most commonly used drug for cat scratch disease. Typical adult regimens for Bartonella infections often use a short course, such as 500 mg on day 1 then 250 mg once daily for 4 more days, adjusted by the physician. It blocks bacterial protein synthesis, helping lymph nodes shrink faster and reducing fever. Side effects may include stomach upset, diarrhea, and rare heart rhythm problems, so monitoring is important. MSD Manuals+2Cancer Therapy Advisor+2
2. Doxycycline
Doxycycline is a tetracycline-class antibiotic used especially when disease is severe, involves the eye or nervous system, or in older children and adults. A doctor may prescribe weight-based dosing twice daily for several weeks in complicated Bartonella infections. It stops bacterial protein production and penetrates tissues well. Sun sensitivity, stomach upset, and esophageal irritation are common side effects; it is usually avoided in young children and pregnancy. FDA Access Data+3Medscape+3AAFP+3
3. Rifampin (Rifampicin)
Rifampin is a rifamycin antibiotic often combined with doxycycline for serious complications like Bartonella endocarditis or neuroretinitis. It blocks bacterial RNA synthesis and is typically given once or twice daily under specialist care for several weeks. It can cause orange discoloration of urine and tears, liver enzyme elevation, and many drug interactions, so close monitoring and individualized dosing are required. FDA Access Data+3Medscape+3AAFP+3
4. Gentamicin
Gentamicin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic used intravenously for very severe Bartonella infections, often in combination with doxycycline. It damages bacterial cell membranes and is generally given in hospital settings for a limited time due to potential kidney and ear toxicity. Drug levels are monitored, and dosing is strictly adjusted by weight, kidney function, and blood tests. PMC+1
5. Ciprofloxacin
Ciprofloxacin, a fluoroquinolone antibiotic, has activity against some Bartonella species and may be considered in special situations or when first-line drugs cannot be used. It interferes with bacterial DNA replication. Adult dosing is usually twice daily, with duration based on infection severity and organ involvement. It can cause tendon problems, nerve symptoms, and QT-interval changes, so it is not first choice for uncomplicated cat scratch fever. MSD Manuals+2FDA Access Data+2
6. Clarithromycin
Clarithromycin is another macrolide with activity against B. henselae and can be an alternative when azithromycin is not suitable. It is usually taken twice daily, and the course length varies. Like azithromycin, it blocks bacterial protein synthesis but has more drug-interaction potential. Common side effects include bitter taste, nausea, and liver enzyme elevations, so liver function and other medicines must be reviewed. MSD Manuals+1
7. Erythromycin
Erythromycin is an older macrolide sometimes used, especially in pediatric Bartonella complications when other options are limited. It is typically dosed several times per day. It slows bacterial growth and supports immune clearance. Gastrointestinal side effects such as cramps and diarrhea are common, and it can affect heart rhythm, so clinicians weigh risks and benefits carefully. AAFP+1
8. Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX)
TMP-SMX is a combination antibiotic that interferes with bacterial folate metabolism. It is sometimes used for Bartonella infections based on susceptibility and patient factors, often twice daily. It can cause allergic rashes, low blood counts, and kidney effects, and should be used with caution in people with sulfa allergies or folate problems. Medscape+1
9. Levofloxacin
Levofloxacin, another fluoroquinolone, may rarely be used in complex or mixed infections, especially if other organisms besides Bartonella are suspected. It blocks bacterial DNA gyrase. Dosing is once daily, and treatment duration is set by a specialist. Like ciprofloxacin, it can cause tendon injury, nervous system effects, and heart rhythm issues, so it is reserved for selected cases. analesdepediatria.org+1
10. Amoxicillin-Clavulanate
Amoxicillin-clavulanate does not specifically target Bartonella well, but may be given if the scratch wound is also infected by common skin bacteria such as Staphylococcus or Streptococcus. It combines a penicillin-class antibiotic with a beta-lactamase inhibitor. Usual dosing is two to three times daily, adjusted to body weight and kidney function. Diarrhea, allergic reactions, and liver effects are possible. AAFP+1
11. Ceftriaxone
Ceftriaxone is an injectable third-generation cephalosporin sometimes used empirically in very sick patients before a clear diagnosis is made or when other infections are suspected alongside Bartonella. It interferes with bacterial cell wall synthesis and is typically given once daily intravenously or intramuscularly in hospital care. Allergic reactions and biliary sludge are known risks. Medscape+1
12. Doxycycline plus Rifampin combination
For severe organ or neurologic involvement, guidelines and case reports often recommend combining doxycycline with rifampin for synergistic effect against Bartonella. Therapy can last several weeks, with exact dosage tailored to weight, kidney and liver function, and drug interactions. Close monitoring is essential for side effects like liver toxicity and drug interactions. PMC+2Medscape+2
13. Doxycycline plus Gentamicin combination
In some forms of Bartonella endocarditis, an initial course of intravenous gentamicin is added to doxycycline to rapidly reduce bacterial load on heart valves. Gentamicin is usually given for a shorter period due to toxicity risks, while doxycycline continues longer. This regimen must be supervised by cardiology and infectious disease teams. Medscape+1
14. Topical antibiotic ointments (for mixed skin infection)
If the scratch becomes secondarily infected with usual skin bacteria, clinicians may prescribe topical antibiotics such as mupirocin. These creams are applied locally several times a day for a short period, following label directions. They target superficial bacteria on the skin but do not treat systemic Bartonella infection and should not replace systemic therapy when needed. Cleveland Clinic+1
15. Antipyretics (acetaminophen)
Acetaminophen is not an antibiotic, but it is frequently used to lower fever and relieve pain in cat scratch disease. It works by affecting the brain’s temperature-control centers and pain pathways. Doses must stay within label limits to avoid liver damage, and people with liver disease should ask a doctor before use. Cleveland Clinic+1
16. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
Ibuprofen and similar NSAIDs help reduce pain, fever, and inflammation in swollen nodes. They block cyclo-oxygenase enzymes and prostaglandin production. They should be taken with food and not overused, as high doses or long-term use can affect the stomach, kidneys, and heart. In children, dosing must strictly follow pediatric guidance. Cleveland Clinic+1
17. Short-course corticosteroids (specialist-directed only)
In some severe eye or neurologic complications, a short course of oral or intravenous steroids may be added to antibiotics to reduce damaging inflammation. They damp down immune over-activity but can also weaken defenses if misused, so they are reserved for specialist-managed cases with careful risk-benefit assessment. AAFP+1
18. Proton pump inhibitors (for drug-related stomach protection)
If prolonged antibiotic therapy irritates the stomach, doctors may add acid-suppressing medicines like omeprazole. These drugs block acid pumps in the stomach lining and reduce heartburn and ulcer risk. They are not part of cat scratch disease treatment itself but support tolerance of necessary antibiotics. Medscape+1
19. Antiemetics (for nausea)
Nausea from infection or antibiotics may be managed with prescribed anti-nausea drugs such as ondansetron. These drugs act on serotonin receptors in the gut and brain to reduce vomiting. They are used for a short time and must be balanced against potential side effects like constipation and QT-interval prolongation. Medscape+1
20. Intravenous fluids
In hospitalised patients with high fever, poor intake, or complications, intravenous fluids help maintain blood pressure, kidney function, and drug delivery. They replace water and electrolytes while the underlying infection is treated with antibiotics. Nurses and doctors adjust type and rate based on vital signs and lab results. Medscape+1
Dietary Molecular Supplements
Supplements support general immune health but do not replace antibiotics when these are needed. Doses should be individualized and checked with a clinician, especially during pregnancy, childhood, kidney disease, or when taking other medicines.
1. Vitamin C
Vitamin C is a water-soluble antioxidant that supports white blood cell function, helps make collagen for skin and blood vessels, and aids wound healing at the scratch site. Typical total daily intakes for adults are around 75–90 mg from food, with supplement doses often 200–500 mg when indicated, unless a doctor advises otherwise. High doses may cause diarrhea or stomach cramps. MedlinePlus+4Office of Dietary Supplements+4MDPI+4
2. Vitamin D
Vitamin D helps regulate both innate and adaptive immune responses and reduces harmful inflammation. Sunlight, fortified foods, and supplements can raise low levels. Common supplement doses vary widely and must be guided by blood tests and medical advice to avoid toxicity. Adequate vitamin D may support better immune balance during infections but is not specific treatment for Bartonella. Nature+4Office of Dietary Supplements+4PMC+4
3. Zinc
Zinc is critical for immune cell development, signaling, and barrier integrity. Modest supplemental doses within recommended limits (for many adults about 8–11 mg/day from diet plus or minus a small supplement) may support normal immunity and wound healing. Excess zinc can interfere with copper balance and cause nausea, so high-dose or prolonged use needs medical oversight. iadns.onlinelibrary.wiley.com+4Office of Dietary Supplements+4Office of Dietary Supplements+4
4. Omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil)
Omega-3 fats such as EPA and DHA from fish oil have anti-inflammatory properties and may help modulate immune responses and systemic inflammation. Typical supplemental doses range from a few hundred to about 1000 mg EPA+DHA per day, adjusted by a clinician. Side effects include fishy aftertaste and, at higher doses, a slight increase in bleeding tendency. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
5. Probiotics
Probiotic supplements containing Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium strains may support gut barrier function and immune regulation, which can be useful during or after antibiotic courses. Doses are measured in billions of colony-forming units (CFU) once or twice daily, depending on product. They can cause mild gas or bloating and should be used cautiously in severely immunocompromised patients. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
6. Selenium
Selenium is a trace mineral involved in antioxidant enzymes and immune cell function. Small supplemental doses near the recommended daily allowance (about 55 micrograms/day in adults, if dietary intake is low) may support immune defenses. Very high doses can be toxic, causing hair loss and nail changes, so medical guidance is essential. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
7. B-complex vitamins
B vitamins (B1, B2, B6, B12, folate, etc.) support energy metabolism and normal function of rapidly dividing immune cells. Balanced B-complex supplements at standard daily values can help people with poor diet or increased metabolic needs during infection. Extremely high doses, especially of B6, may cause nerve problems if taken for long periods. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
8. Curcumin (turmeric extract)
Curcumin from turmeric has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects shown in many experimental studies. Standardized supplements are often given with black pepper extract to improve absorption. Typical doses vary (for example 500–1000 mg/day of standardized extract), but curcumin can interact with blood thinners and may cause digestive upset, so it should be used under medical supervision. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
9. Quercetin
Quercetin is a plant flavonoid found in onions, apples, and berries with antioxidant and immune-modulating properties in lab studies. Supplemental doses vary widely; many products offer 250–500 mg once or twice daily. It may interact with certain drugs and can cause headaches or stomach upset in some people. It should be viewed as supportive, not curative. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
10. N-Acetylcysteine (NAC)
NAC is a precursor to glutathione, one of the body’s main antioxidants, and may help modulate oxidative stress and inflammation during infection. Common supplemental doses range from 600 to 1200 mg per day in divided doses, but must be adjusted for health status and other medications. Possible side effects include nausea and rare allergic reactions. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
Immune-Modulating and “Regenerative / Stem-Cell” Drugs
There are no FDA-approved “stem cell drugs” or specific regenerative medicines for cat scratch disease. However, some immune-modulating therapies are used in special situations and underlying conditions.
1. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)
G-CSF is an injectable medicine that boosts white blood cell production in people with severe neutropenia (very low neutrophils). It is not routine for cat scratch fever but may be used if a patient with a serious blood disorder also develops Bartonella infection. It supports the body’s ability to fight bacteria but can cause bone pain and, rarely, spleen problems. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
2. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG)
IVIG is a pooled antibody product given by infusion to treat certain immune deficiencies and autoimmune disorders. In rare complex Bartonella cases with immune complications, specialists may consider IVIG to modulate the immune response. It provides a broad mix of antibodies but can cause headaches, clotting risks, or kidney strain in susceptible patients. Medscape+1
3. Corticosteroids (as immune modulators)
As noted earlier, short courses of steroids may be used alongside antibiotics for severe eye or neurologic involvement to reduce damaging inflammation. They are not regenerative, but they can protect tissues (such as the retina) from immune-mediated injury. Long-term use can suppress immunity, raise blood sugar, and weaken bones, so they must be tightly controlled. AAFP+1
4. Hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) in underlying disease
Some patients with inherited or acquired immune disorders receive HSCT to rebuild their immune system. Cat scratch disease can be serious in these patients before or after transplant, requiring aggressive antibiotic therapy. HSCT itself is not used to treat Bartonella, but by correcting the underlying immune defect it may reduce future risk of severe infections. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
5. Biologic agents (caution in immunosuppressed patients)
Drugs that block TNF-alpha or other cytokines are used for autoimmune diseases. They are not treatments for cat scratch fever; instead, they increase susceptibility to infections, including Bartonella. In patients taking biologics, doctors may temporarily adjust therapy and treat Bartonella more aggressively to prevent serious complications. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
6. Experimental cell-based therapies
Various stem-cell and cell-based immunotherapies are being researched for immune disorders and tissue repair, but none are established or approved for treating cat scratch disease itself. Any such approach outside of a clinical trial would be experimental. Evidence-based management still relies on supportive care and appropriate antibiotics. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
Surgical and Interventional Procedures
1. Lymph node aspiration
When a lymph node is extremely large, tense, and painful, clinicians may insert a sterile needle to withdraw fluid (aspiration). This can reduce pain, obtain material for testing, and lower the risk of spontaneous rupture. It is done under local anesthesia with ultrasound guidance when needed, and minor bruising or infection are possible risks. AAFP+1
2. Lymph node incision and drainage
If a node has formed a true abscess with thick pus, surgical incision and drainage may be required. A small cut is made, pus is drained, and the cavity may be lightly packed or left to drain. This relieves pressure, promotes healing, and allows culture testing. Proper technique and antibiotics help prevent fistulas or scarring. AAFP+1
3. Excision of chronically enlarged node
Rarely, a lymph node remains enlarged or atypical long after infection, and doctors worry about lymphoma or other diagnoses. Surgical removal of the whole node under anesthesia allows full microscopic examination and can also relieve persistent discomfort or cosmetic concern. Risks include bleeding, infection, and nerve injury depending on location. AAFP+1
4. Cardiac valve surgery for Bartonella endocarditis
In very rare cases, Bartonella infects heart valves, sometimes requiring valve replacement in addition to prolonged antibiotics. Cardiothoracic surgeons remove the damaged valve and implant a mechanical or bioprosthetic valve. Surgery aims to prevent heart failure, emboli, and death but carries serious risks and is reserved for confirmed severe disease. Medscape+1
5. Neurosurgical or ophthalmic procedures
Brain abscesses or severe eye complications from disseminated cat scratch disease may need neurosurgical drainage or eye surgeries such as vitrectomy. These procedures relieve pressure, remove infected material, and preserve vision or brain function. They are performed only in tertiary centers with combined infectious disease, neurology, and ophthalmology input. Medscape+2analesdepediatria.org+2
Prevention Strategies
1. Avoid rough play with cats, especially kittens to reduce bites and scratches. Cleveland Clinic+1
2. Wash any cat bite or scratch immediately with soap and water and monitor the area for several days. Cleveland Clinic+1
3. Use effective flea control on household cats with products recommended by a veterinarian. Cleveland Clinic+1
4. Keep cats indoors when possible to reduce their exposure to fleas and infected animals. Cleveland Clinic+1
5. Avoid petting or adopting stray cats and kittens, particularly if you have a weakened immune system. Cleveland Clinic+1
6. Do not allow cats to lick open wounds or broken skin, and cover any bandaged areas securely. Cleveland Clinic+1
7. Wash hands with soap and water after handling cats, cleaning litter boxes, or touching cat saliva. Cleveland Clinic+1
8. Immunocompromised people should consider adopting older cats rather than kittens and discuss pet safety with their doctors. Cleveland Clinic+1
9. Educate children about gentle handling of pets and supervise playtime to prevent scratches and bites. Cleveland Clinic+1
10. Maintain overall health with balanced diet, sleep, vaccines, and regular medical check-ups so the immune system is better prepared for infections. Office of Dietary Supplements+2PMC+2
When to See a Doctor
You should contact a doctor if you have had a cat bite, scratch, or lick on broken skin and then develop any of the following:
A bump or blister at the site plus swollen, tender lymph nodes near it that last more than a week. Genome Center+1
Fever for more than a few days, chills, or feeling generally very unwell. Cleveland Clinic+1
Redness around the wound that keeps spreading, or pus leaking from the wound or lymph node. Cleveland Clinic+1
Severe headache, confusion, seizures, or neck stiffness, which may signal spread to the brain. Cleveland Clinic+1
Eye redness, vision changes, or pain, especially if preceded by a cat scratch near the eye. Cleveland Clinic+1
Chest pain, shortness of breath, or new heart murmurs, which are rare but serious warning signs. Medscape+1
People with HIV, organ transplants, chemotherapy, or long-term steroids should seek medical help early, even with mild symptoms, because they are at higher risk for severe disease. Cleveland Clinic+2Medscape+2
What to Eat and What to Avoid
1. Emphasize whole fruits and vegetables
Eat colorful fruits and vegetables (citrus fruits, berries, leafy greens, carrots, peppers) to supply natural vitamin C, carotenoids, and other antioxidants that support immune function and tissue repair. Limit sugary drinks and sweets, which add calories without nutrients and may worsen inflammation. Office of Dietary Supplements+2MDPI+2
2. Choose lean proteins
Select lean meats, fish, eggs, beans, and lentils to provide amino acids for immune cells and wound healing. Avoid processed meats high in salt, preservatives, and unhealthy fats, which may contribute to long-term heart and metabolic problems. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
3. Include omega-3-rich foods
Fatty fish (salmon, sardines, mackerel), walnuts, and flaxseeds offer omega-3 fats that help regulate inflammation. Try to limit deep-fried foods and trans-fat snacks, which promote inflammation and provide little nutritional benefit. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
4. Maintain adequate vitamin D intake
Consume vitamin-D-rich foods like fortified milk, fatty fish, and eggs, and consider a supplement if your doctor confirms low levels. Avoid extreme high-dose vitamin D without monitoring, as this can damage kidneys and raise blood calcium. Nature+3Office of Dietary Supplements+3News-Medical+3
5. Ensure enough zinc from food
Eat zinc-rich foods such as meat, poultry, seafood, dairy, beans, and seeds to support immune defenses. Avoid long-term, very high-dose zinc supplements unless supervised, because they can cause copper deficiency and upset stomach. MedlinePlus+3Office of Dietary Supplements+3Office of Dietary Supplements+3
6. Stay well hydrated with water
Drink water, herbal teas, and clear broths regularly, especially when you have fever. Limit sugary sodas, energy drinks, and excessive fruit juice, which can spike blood sugar and may worsen gastrointestinal upset. Cleveland Clinic+1
7. Favor whole grains over refined grains
Choose brown rice, whole-grain bread, and oats, which provide fiber, B vitamins, and steady energy. Avoid large amounts of white bread, pastries, and white rice, which digest quickly and may contribute to blood sugar swings and fatigue. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
8. Use herbs and spices wisely
Garlic, ginger, and turmeric can add flavor and may have mild anti-inflammatory or antimicrobial effects in experimental studies. Avoid over-salting food and heavy sauces rich in sugar and saturated fat, which can burden circulation and digestion. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
9. Moderate caffeine
Small amounts of tea or coffee can support alertness, but high caffeine intake may worsen anxiety, disturb sleep, and slow recovery. Energy drinks with high sugar and caffeine are best avoided during illness. Office of Dietary Supplements
10. Avoid alcohol and tobacco
Alcohol and smoking impair immune responses and delay wound healing. During any infection, especially cat scratch disease with lymph node involvement, avoiding alcohol and smoking can help the body clear bacteria more efficiently and reduce complications. Office of Dietary Supplements+1
Frequently Asked Questions
1. Is Foshay-Mollaret cat scratch fever the same as cat scratch disease?
Yes. Foshay-Mollaret cat scratch fever is an older or alternative name for what is now usually called cat scratch disease or cat scratch fever, a Bartonella henselae infection mainly affecting lymph nodes. WikiDoc+1
2. Can healthy people get better without antibiotics?
Many healthy children and adults recover completely with only supportive care such as wound cleaning, rest, and pain control. Lymph nodes may remain swollen for weeks but gradually improve. Antibiotics are more strongly considered when disease is moderate to severe or the patient is immunocompromised. Genome Center+2Cleveland Clinic+2
3. What is the most commonly used antibiotic?
Azithromycin is often used because of convenient once-daily dosing and evidence that it can speed reduction of lymph node size. Other antibiotics like doxycycline, rifampin, or gentamicin are reserved for complicated or systemic Bartonella infections. Medscape+3MSD Manuals+3Cancer Therapy Advisor+3
4. How long does cat scratch disease last?
Symptoms such as fever and malaise usually improve over a few weeks, but swollen lymph nodes can persist for 2–8 weeks or longer. Most people recover fully within about four months, though rare complications may prolong recovery. Genome Center+2Cleveland Clinic+2
5. Can cat scratch disease come back?
Most people who have cat scratch disease once do not get it again, likely because their immune system develops lasting protection. However, re-infection can occur if exposed again and immunity is not complete, especially in people with weakened immune systems. Genome Center+1
6. Is cat scratch disease contagious between people?
It is not usually spread directly from person to person. The main route is from infected cats via scratches, bites, or licks on broken skin, with fleas helping to maintain infection in the cat population. Genome Center+1
7. How can I protect my child who loves cats?
Teach gentle handling, avoid rough play, keep cat claws trimmed, use flea control, and wash any scratches promptly. For children with immune problems, discuss with their doctor whether adopting an older indoor cat is safer than a kitten. Cleveland Clinic+2Medscape+2
8. Can cat scratch disease damage the eyes?
Yes, Bartonella can sometimes cause Parinaud oculoglandular syndrome or neuroretinitis, leading to eye redness, pain, and vision changes. These conditions need urgent eye specialist care, antibiotics, and sometimes steroids to protect vision. Cleveland Clinic+2AAFP+2
9. What about heart problems from this infection?
Bartonella can rarely cause endocarditis (infection of heart valves), especially in people with existing heart disease or weak immune systems. Treatment involves prolonged combination antibiotics and sometimes valve surgery. Medscape+1
10. Are natural remedies alone enough?
Supportive natural measures—rest, hydration, good nutrition—are very helpful, but they cannot replace antibiotics when serious or systemic Bartonella infection is present. Ignoring red-flag symptoms can lead to dangerous complications. Always combine lifestyle and natural care with evidence-based medical guidance. Office of Dietary Supplements+2AAFP+2
11. Should I give my child supplements for cat scratch disease?
Basic nutrients like vitamin C, vitamin D, zinc, and a balanced diet are important for all children, but any supplement should be discussed with a pediatrician. Over-supplementation can be harmful, and supplements cannot substitute for needed antibiotics or medical care. MedlinePlus+4Office of Dietary Supplements+4Office of Dietary Supplements+4
12. Can cats be tested or treated for Bartonella?
Routine testing of healthy cats is not usually recommended because many cats may carry the bacteria without illness, and test results can be hard to interpret. Vets focus on flea control and general cat health rather than specific Bartonella treatment unless there are other reasons. Cleveland Clinic+2Wikipedia+2
13. Should I get rid of my cat if I had cat scratch disease?
In most cases, no. With good flea control, gentle handling, and wound care, people can safely continue to live with cats. Immunocompromised individuals should review their specific risks with both their doctor and veterinarian to make a shared decision. Cleveland Clinic+2Medscape+2
14. Do vaccines exist for cat scratch disease?
There is currently no human vaccine or widely used cat vaccine specifically against Bartonella henselae. Prevention relies on flea control, safe handling of cats, and prompt wound care. Wikipedia+1
15. What is the overall prognosis?
For most healthy people, the outlook is excellent: cat scratch disease is self-limiting with full recovery and no long-term problems. Prognosis is more guarded in immunocompromised patients or those with organ involvement, but early diagnosis, proper antibiotics, and supportive care can still lead to good outcomes. AAFP+3Genome Center+3Cleveland Clinic+3
Disclaimer: Each person’s journey is unique, treatment plan, life style, food habit, hormonal condition, immune system, chronic disease condition, geological location, weather and previous medical history is also unique. So always seek the best advice from a qualified medical professional or health care provider before trying any treatments to ensure to find out the best plan for you. This guide is for general information and educational purposes only. Regular check-ups and awareness can help to manage and prevent complications associated with these diseases conditions. If you or someone are suffering from this disease condition bookmark this website or share with someone who might find it useful! Boost your knowledge and stay ahead in your health journey. We always try to ensure that the content is regularly updated to reflect the latest medical research and treatment options. Thank you for giving your valuable time to read the article.
The article is written by Team RxHarun and reviewed by the Rx Editorial Board Members
Last Updated: November 14, 2025.
