Choline is a vital nutrient, but what many people may not realize is that their consumption levels fall below the recommended intake. Beef and chicken liver, salmon, and eggs are among the richest dietary sources of choline.
Choline is a recently discovered nutrient. It was only acknowledged as a required nutrient by the Institute of Medicine in 1998. Although your body makes some, you need to get choline from your diet to avoid a deficiency.
However, many people are not meeting the recommended intake for this nutrient. This article provides everything you need to know about choline, including what it is and why you need it.
This means it’s required for normal bodily function and human health. Though your liver can make small amounts, you must obtain the majority through your diet. Choline is an organic, water-soluble compound. It is neither a vitamin nor a mineral.
However, it is often grouped with the vitamin B complex due to its similarities. In fact, this nutrient affects a number of vital bodily functions.
It impacts liver function, healthy brain development, muscle movement, your nervous system and metabolism.
Health Benefits of Choline
Below are 30 potential health benefits and roles associated with choline, an essential nutrient often grouped with B vitamins. Please note that ongoing research continues to clarify choline’s full range of benefits. Always consult with a healthcare professional before making significant changes to your supplement or dietary routine.
- Supports Cognitive Function
Choline is a precursor to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter essential for memory, learning, and overall brain function. - Aids in Brain Development
Adequate choline intake during pregnancy and early childhood supports healthy brain and neural development in the fetus and young children. - Helps Form Cell Membranes
Choline is used to synthesize phospholipids (like phosphatidylcholine), which are key components in cell membrane structure and function. - Essential for Nervous System Signaling
As a critical component of acetylcholine, choline helps transmit signals between nerves and muscles, influencing muscle control and other neurological processes. - Facilitates Lipid (Fat) Metabolism
Choline supports the transport and metabolism of fats in the liver and bloodstream, helping to prevent abnormal fat accumulation. - Supports Healthy Liver Function
Sufficient choline intake is linked with lower risk of liver damage; it helps prevent non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and supports overall liver health. - Involved in Methylation
Choline can be converted into betaine, a methyl donor that supports DNA methylation—a key process for gene regulation and cellular function. - May Improve Memory and Learning
Research suggests choline supplementation may enhance memory and learning, especially in older adults or those with low choline status. - Promotes Normal Fetal Development
Choline helps build strong fetal cell membranes, especially important in brain and spinal cord development, and may aid in reducing the risk of neural tube defects. - Supports Healthy Pregnancy Outcomes
Adequate maternal choline intake is linked to positive pregnancy outcomes, such as improved fetal growth and overall maternal health. - Contributes to Heart Health
Through its role in lipid metabolism and homocysteine regulation, choline may support healthy cholesterol balance and cardiovascular function. - Boosts Mental Energy
By helping produce neurotransmitters, choline may help with mental alertness and focus. - Supports Mood Regulation
The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is implicated in mood and stress responses; adequate choline intake may support balanced mood. - Important for Muscle Control
Acetylcholine plays a central role in muscle contraction. Consuming enough choline can help optimize neuromuscular function. - Supports Structural Integrity of Cells
The phospholipids formed from choline (e.g., phosphatidylcholine) help maintain cell membrane integrity throughout the body. - Helps Produce SAM-e
Through methylation, choline assists in the production of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM-e), a compound involved in mood regulation, liver function, and more. - May Aid Athletic Performance
Some athletes use choline supplements to support muscle performance, reduce fatigue, or improve mental focus during endurance activities. - Potential Neuroprotective Effects
Some studies suggest that choline could help protect against age-related cognitive decline, though more research is needed. - May Promote Healthy Inflammatory Responses
By supporting liver function and fatty acid metabolism, choline may indirectly help maintain a normal inflammatory response in the body. - Supports Healthy Gene Expression
Methylation influenced by choline is a key process in regulating which genes are turned on or off in cells. - Potential Role in Alzheimer’s Disease Research
Because of its involvement in neurotransmitter production, researchers are studying whether choline supplementation may help slow certain cognitive symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. - Supports Overall Metabolism
Choline’s role in fat and cholesterol metabolism is part of the body’s broader metabolic processes that convert nutrients into energy. - May Help with Homocysteine Regulation
Adequate choline can help maintain healthy homocysteine levels—high homocysteine is linked with cardiovascular issues. - Contributes to DNA Synthesis
As a methyl donor, choline (through betaine) is indirectly involved in processes required for DNA repair and cell division. - Possible Protective Effects Against Certain Cancers
Research is ongoing, but some studies suggest adequate choline intake may have a protective role against certain types of cancer (e.g., breast cancer), though findings remain mixed. - Potential Benefits for Depression Management
Preliminary evidence suggests a connection between choline levels and mood regulation, potentially offering adjunct support in depression management. - Helps Maintain Tissue Elasticity
The phospholipids from choline support cell membrane flexibility, which aids tissues like skin and connective tissue in staying resilient. - Assists in Hormone Production
Certain hormones and cell signaling molecules rely on nutrients involved in methylation and phospholipid balance, in which choline is essential. - Promotes Healthy Fat Distribution
By aiding fat metabolism, choline intake helps ensure that fat is properly transported and utilized throughout the body, rather than stored excessively in the liver. - Important for Overall Nutrition Balance
Choline works synergistically with other B vitamins (folate, B12, etc.) and nutrients—emphasizing the importance of a balanced diet for optimal health.
Content in foods
Choline occurs in foods as a free cation and in the form of phospholipids, especially as phosphatidylcholines. Choline is highest in organ meats and egg yolks though it is found to a lesser degree in non-organ meats, grains, vegetables, fruit and dairy products.[rx] Cooking oils and other food fats have about 5 mg/100 g of total choline.[rx] In the United States, food labels express the amount of choline in a serving as a percentage of Daily Value (%DV) based on the Adequate Intake of 550 mg/day. 100% of the daily value means that a serving of food has 550 mg of choline.[rx] “Total choline” is defined as the sum of free choline and choline-containing phospholipids, without accounting for mass fraction.[rx][rx]
Human breast milk is rich in choline.[rx][rx] Exclusive breastfeeding corresponds to about 120 mg of choline per day for the baby. Increase in a mother’s choline intake raises the choline content of breast milk and low intake decreases it.[rx] Infant formulas may or may not contain enough choline. In the EU and the US, it is mandatory to add at least 7 mg of choline per 100 kilocalories (kcal) to every infant formula. In the EU, levels above 50 mg/100 kcal are not allowed.[rx][rx]
Trimethylglycine is a functional metabolite of choline. It substitutes for choline nutritionally, but only partially.[rx] High amounts of trimethylglycine occur in wheat bran (1,339 mg/100 g), toasted wheat germ (1,240 mg/100 g) and spinach (600–645 mg/100 g), for example.[rx]
| Meats | Vegetables | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Bacon, cooked | 124.89 | Bean, snap | 13.46 |
| Beef, trim-cut, cooked | 78.15 | Beetroot | 6.01 |
| Beef liver, pan fried | 418.22 | Broccoli | 40.06 |
| Chicken, roasted, with skin | 65.83 | Brussels sprout | 40.61 |
| Chicken, roasted, no skin | 78.74 | Cabbage | 15.45 |
| Chicken liver | 290.03 | Carrot | 8.79 |
| Cod, atlantic | 83.63 | Cauliflower | 39.10 |
| Ground beef, 75–85% lean, broiled | 79.32–82.35 | Sweetcorn, yellow | 21.95 |
| Pork loin cooked | 102.76 | Cucumber | 5.95 |
| Shrimp, canned | 70.60 | Lettuce, iceberg | 6.70 |
| Dairy products (cow) | Lettuce, romaine | 9.92 | |
| Butter, salted | 18.77 | Pea | 27.51 |
| Cheese | 16.50–27.21 | Sauerkraut | 10.39 |
| Cottage cheese | 18.42 | Spinach | 22.08 |
| Milk, whole/skimmed | 14.29–16.40 | Sweet potato | 13.11 |
| Sour cream | 20.33 | Tomato | 6.74 |
| Yogurt, plain | 15.20 | Zucchini | 9.36 |
| Grains | Fruits | ||
| Oat bran, raw | 58.57 | Apple | 3.44 |
| Oats, plain | 7.42 | Avocado | 14.18 |
| Rice, white | 2.08 | Banana | 9.76 |
| Rice, brown | 9.22 | Blueberry | 6.04 |
| Wheat bran | 74.39 | Cantaloupe | 7.58 |
| Wheat germ, toasted | 152.08 | Grape | 7.53 |
| Others | Grapefruit | 5.63 | |
| Bean, navy | 26.93 | Orange | 8.38 |
| Egg, chicken | 251.00 | Peach | 6.10 |
| Olive oil | 0.29 | Pear | 5.11 |
| Peanut | 52.47 | Prune | 9.66 |
| Soybean, raw | 115.87 | Strawberry | 5.65 |
| Tofu, soft | 27.37 | Watermelon | 4.07 |
- ^ Foods are raw unless noted otherwise. Contents are “total choline” as defined above.
Daily values
The following table contains updated sources of choline to reflect the new Daily Value and the new Nutrition Facts and Supplement Facts Labels.[rx] It reflects data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central, 2019.[rx]
| Food | Milligrams (mg) per serving | Percent DV* |
| Beef liver, pan fried, 3 oz (85 g) | 356 | 65 |
| Egg, hard boiled, 1 large egg | 147 | 27 |
| Beef top round, separable lean only, braised, 3 oz (85 g) | 117 | 21 |
| Soybeans, roasted, 1⁄2 cup | 107 | 19 |
| Chicken breast, roasted, 3 oz (85 g) | 72 | 13 |
| Beef, ground, 93% lean meat, broiled, 3 oz (85 g) | 72 | 13 |
| Cod, Atlantic, cooked, dry heat, 3 oz (85 g) | 71 | 13 |
| Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked, 1⁄2 cup pieces | 58 | 11 |
| Potatoes, red, baked, flesh and skin, 1 large potato | 57 | 10 |
| Wheat germ, toasted, 1 oz (28 g) | 51 | 9 |
| Beans, kidney, canned, 1⁄2 cup | 45 | 8 |
| Quinoa, cooked, 1 cup | 43 | 8 |
| Milk, 1% fat, 1 cup | 43 | 8 |
| Yogurt, vanilla, nonfat, 1 cup | 38 | 7 |
| Brussels sprouts, boiled, 1⁄2 cup | 32 | 6 |
| Broccoli, chopped, boiled, drained, 1⁄2 cup | 31 | 6 |
| Cottage cheese, nonfat, 1 cup | 26 | 5 |
| Tuna, white, canned in water, drained in solids, 3 oz (85 g) | 25 | 5 |
| Peanuts, dry roasted, 1⁄4 cup | 24 | 4 |
| Cauliflower, 1 in (2.5 cm) pieces, boiled, drained, 1⁄2 cup | 24 | 4 |
| Peas, green, boiled, 1⁄2 cup | 24 | 4 |
| Sunflower seeds, oil roasted, 1⁄4 cup | 19 | 3 |
| Rice, brown, long-grain, cooked, 1 cup | 19 | 3 |
| Bread, pita, whole wheat, 1 large (6+1⁄2 in or 17 cm diameter) | 17 | 3 |
| Cabbage, boiled, 1⁄2 cup | 15 | 3 |
| Tangerine (mandarin orange), sections, 1⁄2 cup | 10 | 2 |
| Beans, snap, raw, 1⁄2 cup | 8 | 1 |
| Kiwifruit, raw, 1⁄2 cup sliced | 7 | 1 |
| Carrots, raw, chopped, 1⁄2 cup | 6 | 1 |
| Apples, raw, with skin, quartered or chopped, 1⁄2 cup | 2 | 0 |
DV = Daily Value. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) developed DVs to help consumers compare the nutrient contents of foods and dietary supplements within the context of a total diet. The DV for choline is 550 mg for adults and children age 4 years and older.[rx] The FDA does not require food labels to list choline content unless choline has been added to the food. Foods providing 20% or more of the DV are considered to be high sources of a nutrient, but foods providing lower percentages of the DV also contribute to a healthful diet.[3]
The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) FoodData Central lists the nutrient content of many foods and provides a comprehensive list of foods containing choline arranged by nutrient content.[rx]
Dietary recommendations
Insufficient data is available to establish an estimated average requirement (EAR) for choline, so the Food and Nutrition Board established adequate intakes (AIs).[rx][rx] For adults, the AI for choline was set at 550 mg/day for men and 425 mg/day for women.[rx] These values have been shown to prevent hepatic alteration in men. However, the study used to derive these values did not evaluate whether less choline would be effective, as researchers only compared a choline-free diet to a diet containing 550 mg of choline per day. From this, the AIs for children and adolescents were extrapolated.[rx][rx]
Recommendations are in milligrams per day (mg/day). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommendations are general recommendations for the EU countries. The EFSA has not set any upper limits for intake.[rx] Individual EU countries may have more specific recommendations. The National Academy of Medicine (NAM) recommendations apply in the United States,[rx] Australia and New Zealand.[rx]
| Age | EFSA adequate intake[rx] | US NAM adequate intake[rx] | US NAM tolerable upper intake levels[rx] |
|---|---|---|---|
| Infants and children | |||
| 0–6 months | Not established | 125 | Not established |
| 7–12 months | 160 | 150 | Not established |
| 1–3 years | 140 | 200 | 1,000 |
| 4–6 years | 170 | 250 | 1,000 |
| 7–8 years | 250 | 250 | 1,000 |
| 9–10 years | 250 | 375 | 1,000 |
| 11–13 years | 340 | 375 | 2,000 |
| Males | |||
| 14 years | 340 | 550 | 3,000 |
| 15–18 years | 400 | 550 | 3,000 |
| 19+ years | 400 | 550 | 3,500 |
| Females | |||
| 14 years | 340 | 400 | 3,000 |
| 15–18 years | 400 | 400 | 3,000 |
| 19+ y | 400 | 425 | 3,500 |
| If pregnant | 480 | 450 | 3,500 (3,000 if ≤18 y) |
| If breastfeeding | 520 | 550 | 3,500 (3,000 if ≤18 y) |
Safety and Dosage Considerations
- Most individuals can obtain choline through a balanced diet with foods such as eggs, liver, fish, poultry, legumes, and cruciferous vegetables.
- Excessive supplementation above recommended limits can cause side effects (e.g., fishy body odor, drop in blood pressure).
- Always consult your healthcare provider to determine the right amount for your needs, especially if you have underlying health conditions or are pregnant.
