A cervical C2–C3 disc derangement refers to injury or abnormal mechanical behavior of the intervertebral disc located between the second (axis) and third cervical vertebral bodies. In a healthy state, this fibrocartilaginous structure maintains spacing for nerve roots, absorbs shock, and allows smooth motion. When deranged, the disc’s internal components (nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus) lose integrity, leading to bulging, herniation, fissuring, or extrusion. These changes can irritate nearby nerves or the spinal cord, causing localized pain, radiculopathy (nerve root symptoms), or, in severe cases, myelopathy (spinal cord dysfunction).
Disc derangement is best understood through the McKenzie classification of internal disc disruption (annular fissure without exterior bulge), protrusion (disc material contained by outer annulus), extrusion (disc material extends beyond the annulus but remains connected), and sequestration (free fragment). Each type varies in severity and clinical presentation.
Anatomy of the C2–C3 Disc
Anatomy of the cervical intervertebral disc is unique compared with lumbar discs. Below are its key features:
Structure & Location
Location: Sandwiched between the inferior endplate of C2 and superior endplate of C3.
Components:
Annulus Fibrosus: Concentric lamellae of collagen fibers (primarily type I externally, type II internally) arranged at alternating angles to resist multi-directional forces.
Nucleus Pulposus: Gelatinous core rich in proteoglycans and water (up to 70% when young), providing hydrostatic pressure and shock absorption.
Vertebral Endplates: Thin layers of hyaline cartilage attached to bony vertebrae, facilitating nutrient diffusion into the disc.
Attachments (Analogue of Origin & Insertion)
Superior Attachment: Sharpey’s fibers anchor the annulus fibrosus to the inferior endplate of C2.
Inferior Attachment: Sharpey’s fibers attach the annulus fibrosus to the superior endplate of C3.
These firm attachments maintain disc stability while allowing slight deformation under load.
Blood Supply
Avascular Core: The disc itself lacks direct blood vessels.
Diffusion Pathway: Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from capillaries in adjacent vertebral bodies through the endplates into the nucleus pulposus and inner annulus fibrosus.
Degenerative changes often begin when diffusion is impaired, leading to dehydration and fissuring.
Nerve Supply
Outer Annulus Fibrosus: Innervated by the sinuvertebral (recurrent meningeal) nerves and gray rami communicantes.
Periosteum & Ligaments: Adjacent structures like the posterior longitudinal ligament also contribute sensory fibers.
Pain from disc derangement typically originates when annular fibers are torn or stretched, stimulating these nociceptive nerves.
Functions of the C2–C3 Disc
Shock Absorption
Hydrostatic nucleus disperses compressive loads evenly to reduce stress on vertebral bones.
Load Distribution
Transmits axial load and shear forces across the motion segment, protecting facet joints.
Spacer for Neural Foramina
Maintains intervertebral height to prevent nerve root compression at the C3 nerve root exit.
Facilitation of Motion
Allows flexion, extension, lateral bending, and rotation between C2 and C3 vertebrae.
Stabilization
Resists excessive translation and torsion when ligaments are under strain.
Energy Storage
Elastic deformation returns energy to assist motion restoration upon unloading.
Types of C2–C3 Disc Derangement
Internal Disc Disruption
Annular fissures without apparent bulge; pain arises from internal pressure and nerve fiber irritation.
Disc Bulge
Circumferential, symmetric extension of outer annulus beyond vertebral margins; usually gracile and asymptomatic.
Protrusion
Focal herniation where the base is wider than the outward projection; annulus contains the nucleus.
Extrusion
Nuclear material pushes through annular tears and extends beyond disc space; still connected to nucleus core.
Sequestration
Free fragment breaks away entirely, potentially migrating and causing significant neural compression.
Calcific Disc
Deposition of hydroxyapatite within the annulus, usually chronic, may cause rostral displacement.
Degenerative Disc Disease
Chronic dehydration and loss of proteoglycans lead to decreased height, tears, and instability.
Traumatic Derangement
Acute injury (e.g., hyperflexion/hyperextension) causing immediate annular tear and possible extrusion.
Infective Discitis
Rare bacterial invasion weakens annulus and endplates, leading to derangement secondary to structural damage.
Autoimmune-Mediated Change
Aberrant immune response to nuclear proteins may accelerate degeneration and fissuring.
Causes of C2–C3 Disc Derangement
Age-Related Degeneration
Gradual loss of water and proteoglycans reducing elasticity.
Repetitive Microtrauma
Chronic poor posture or repetitive neck flexion/extension stresses annulus.
Acute Trauma
Falls, whiplash, or direct blows causing annular tears.
Genetic Predisposition
Family history of early degeneration linked to collagen mutations.
Smoking
Nicotine impairs endplate perfusion, accelerating dehydration.
Obesity
Increased axial load strains cervical segments.
Poor Ergonomics
Text neck and sustained forward flexion weaken posterior annulus.
Heavy Lifting
Improper technique generates excessive compressive and shear forces.
High-Impact Sports
Football, rugby, and wrestling increase risk of acute disc injury.
Repeated Vibration
Occupational exposure (e.g., jackhammer) accelerates disc fatigue.
Ligamentous Laxity
Congenital or acquired laxity allows excessive motion and disc stress.
Inflammatory Arthropathies
Rheumatoid arthritis can erode supporting ligaments and endplates.
Infection
Discitis weakens structural integrity of disc and endplates.
Steroid Injections
Repeated epidural steroids may impair collagen repair in annulus.
Nutritional Deficiencies
Low vitamin D and calcium impair bone and endplate health.
Chronic Neck Strain
Stress from holding a phone between ear and shoulder compresses C2–C3.
Sleep Position
Unsupported neck during sleep can slowly damage annulus over years.
Metabolic Disorders
Diabetes mellitus linked with accelerated glycosylation of disc proteins.
Occupational Stress
Desk workers with prolonged static postures develop early degeneration.
History of Spinal Surgery
Adjacent segment disease may overload C2–C3 after fusion elsewhere.
Symptoms of C2–C3 Disc Derangement
Neck Pain (Axial)
Deep, constant ache over upper cervical region, worsened by movement.
Occipital Headache
Referred pain at the base of the skull due to C3 nerve root irritation.
Radicular Arm Pain
Shooting pain into the shoulder or scapular region following the C3 dermatome.
Numbness or Tingling
Paresthesia over the back of the head or upper neck.
Muscle Spasm
Involuntary contraction of paraspinal muscles guarding the injured segment.
Limited Range of Motion
Difficulty turning or bending the neck side-to-side and up/down.
Stiffness
Morning stiffness that improves slightly with gentle movement.
Neck Crepitus
Audible grinding or crackling during neck motion.
Myofascial Pain
Trigger points in upper trapezius and suboccipital muscles.
Sensory Hypoesthesia
Reduced touch sensitivity in the C3 dermatome.
Weakness (Rare)
Mild weakness in neck flexion or extension if severe compression.
Balance Disturbance
Unsteadiness due to proprioceptive dysfunction from neck pathology.
Dysphagia
Difficulty swallowing if anterior disc protrusion presses on pharynx.
Vertigo
Sensation of spinning linked to upper cervical proprioceptor irritation.
Autonomic Symptoms
Rare sweating or visual changes from sympathetic chain irritation.
Facial Pain
Referred trigeminal-like pain via convergence of upper cervical nerves.
Sleep Disturbance
Pain awakening from sleep due to sustained disc pressure.
Guarding Posture
Holding head tilted away from painful side.
Depression or Anxiety
Chronic pain leading to secondary mood disturbances.
Reduced Work Capacity
Difficulty performing overhead or prolonged desk tasks.
Diagnostic Tests for C2–C3 Disc Derangement
Below are twenty key tests—clinical and imaging—each described in detail to understand its role in diagnosing C2–C3 disc pathology.
Patient History
Keyword: Mechanism—elicits details of trauma, occupational stress, and symptom onset.
Description: A thorough history identifies red flags (e.g., infection, malignancy) and patterns suggestive of disc derangement, such as pain with flexion/extension or radiation into the occiput.
Physical Examination
Keyword: Inspection—posture, muscle guarding, asymmetry.
Description: Observe head tilt or protective posture. Palpate for tenderness over C2–C3 interspace and paraspinal muscles to localize pain.
Range of Motion (ROM) Testing
Keyword: Flexion/Extension—measure degrees of motion using goniometer.
Description: Reduced flexion (<45°) or extension (<70°) suggests mechanical blockage or pain inhibition from disc pathology.
Spurling’s Test
Keyword: Compression—axial load with head extension and rotation toward painful side.
Description: Positive when radicular arm or occipital pain is reproduced, indicating nerve root impingement at C3.
Neck Distraction Test
Keyword: Decompression—gentle upward traction under the mastoid processes.
Description: Pain relief upon distraction suggests disc-mediated nerve root compression rather than facet joint involvement.
Lhermitte’s Sign
Keyword: Electric Shock—neck flexion induces tingling down spine or limbs.
Description: Indicates spinal cord involvement, warranting urgent imaging if positive.
Palpation of Trigger Points
Keyword: Myofascial—identifies hyperirritable spots in muscle bands.
Description: Differentiates muscle-related pain from discogenic pain; often coexists with disc derangement.
Sensory Testing
Keyword: Light Touch & Pinprick—maps dermatomal deficits.
Description: Hypoesthesia over the C3 dermatome (posterior head/neck) supports nerve root involvement at C2–C3.
Motor Strength Testing
Keyword: MMT—grades neck flexors/extensors on a 0–5 scale.
Description: Mild weakness indicates severe compression; must differentiate from pain-inhibited weakness.
Reflex Testing
Keyword: Biceps & Brachioradialis reflexes—assess C5–C6 but can be affected by adjacent segment pathology.
Description: Diminished reflexes raise suspicion of upper cervical nerve root compromise.
Plain Radiography (X-Ray)
Keyword: Lateral View—assesses disc space height and vertebral alignment.
Description: Loss of C2–C3 height, osteophyte formation, or listhesis (slippage) suggest chronic disc derangement.
Flexion-Extension X-Rays
Keyword: Dynamic Instability—images taken in full flexion and extension.
Description: Reveals abnormal translation (>3.5 mm) or angulation (>11°), indicating segmental instability from disc failure.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Keyword: T2-Weighted—highlights fluid in nucleus pulposus and annular tears.
Description: Gold standard for soft-tissue evaluation; shows herniation type, nerve root compression, and disc hydration status.
Computed Tomography (CT) Scan
Keyword: Bony Detail—excellent for osseous endplate changes and calcified discs.
Description: Use when MRI contraindicated; fine-slice images elucidate osteophytes and subtle endplate irregularities.
CT Myelography
Keyword: Contrast—injects dye into subarachnoid space to outline spinal cord and nerve roots.
Description: Detects extradural compressive lesions if MRI is inconclusive or in patients with pacemakers.
Provocative Discography
Keyword: Injection—contrast injected under pressure into the disc nucleus.
Description: Reproduction of concordant pain with dye leakage through annular fissures confirms discogenic pain source, though use is controversial.
Electromyography (EMG)
Keyword: Muscle Response—needles record electrical activity in target muscles.
Description: Identifies denervation changes in muscles supplied by C3–C4 roots, supporting chronic nerve compression.
Nerve Conduction Studies (NCS)
Keyword: Conduction Velocity—measures speed of electrical impulse along peripheral nerves.
Description: Differentiates radiculopathy from peripheral neuropathy; typically normal in root lesions but helpful in differential diagnosis.
Ultrasound of Neck
Keyword: Soft-Tissue Imaging—visualizes superficial structures and dynamic motion.
Description: Emerging modality to assess disc bulges during neck movement; operator-dependent.
Clinical Prediction Rules (Wainner’s Cluster)
Keyword: Combined Tests—integration of Spurling’s, distraction, neck rotation, and upper limb nerve tension signs.
Description: When three of four tests are positive, cervical radiculopathy diagnosed with >90% specificity, guiding imaging decisions.
Non-Pharmacological Treatments
Postural Education – Teaching patients to sit and stand with the head over the shoulders reduces disc compression by realigning spinal load-bearing.
Ergonomic Workstation Adjustment – Raising monitors to eye level prevents forward head posture, alleviating sustained stress on C2–C3.
Cervical Traction – Applying gentle mechanical or manual pull increases intervertebral space, reducing nerve pressure and pain.
Therapeutic Massage – Soft-tissue mobilization of neck muscles improves blood flow and relaxes muscle spasms that aggravate disc stress.
Heat Therapy – Superficial heat increases tissue elasticity, enhances circulation, and eases muscle tightness around the injured disc.
Cold Therapy – Ice packs constrict blood vessels, decreasing inflammation and numbing pain in acute flares.
Ultrasound Therapy – Deep-heat ultrasound waves promote collagen remodeling in the annulus fibrosus and reduce pain signals.
Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) – Low-voltage electrical currents gate pain transmission in the spinal cord, reducing perceived discomfort.
Dry Needling – Insertion of fine needles into trigger points releases tight knots in neck muscles, relieving secondary muscle tension.
Acupuncture – Stimulating specific points may modulate pain via endorphin release and improved local microcirculation.
Cervical Stabilization Exercises – Isometric holds of deep neck flexors train the muscles that support cervical alignment, off-loading the disc.
Range-of-Motion (ROM) Exercises – Gentle neck rotations and side-bends maintain joint mobility and prevent stiffness around C2–C3.
Progressive Resistance Strengthening – Using light resistance bands to build endurance in neck extensors and rotators stabilizes the segment.
Scapular Strengthening – Strengthening shoulder-blade muscles improves overall neck posture and reduces compensatory strain on C2–C3.
Yoga-Based Neck Stretching – Sustained, controlled stretches improve flexibility of neck soft tissues that transmit load to the disc.
Pilates – Emphasis on core and postural control carries over to cervical spine stability, limiting injurious motion at C2–C3.
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction – Stress can heighten muscle tension; relaxation techniques lower sympathetic tone, easing neck spasms.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) – Reframing pain beliefs can reduce avoidance behaviors and improve adherence to active rehabilitation.
Aquatic Therapy – Buoyancy reduces axial loading on the cervical spine, allowing pain-free movement practice.
Neck Brace (Soft Collar) – Short-term use limits extreme motion, giving injured tissues time to heal.
Kinesio Taping – Elastic tape applied along neck muscles can provide proprioceptive feedback, aiding posture correction.
Myofascial Release – Therapist-applied sustained pressure to fascia around the neck reduces adhesions that restrict movement.
Instrument-Assisted Soft Tissue Mobilization (IASTM) – Specialized tools scrape the skin to break down scar tissue, improving tissue glide.
Ergonomic Sleep Pillows – Cervical contour pillows maintain neutral neck curvature, minimizing overnight disc stress.
Activity Modification – Temporarily avoiding overhead lifting or heavy backpacks reduces aggravating forces on C2–C3.
Neural Mobilization (Nerve Gliding) – Gentle nerve stretches decrease adhesions between nerves and surrounding tissues, reducing radiating pain.
Biofeedback – Real-time cues on muscle tension empower patients to consciously relax neck muscles.
Low-Level Laser Therapy (LLLT) – Photobiomodulation may accelerate tissue repair in the annulus and modulate pain.
Ergonomic Driving Adjustments – Adjusting headrest height and steering posture prevents sustained forward head tilt during driving.
Smoking Cessation Counseling – Smoking impairs spinal blood flow and disc nutrition; quitting supports natural disc healing.
Pharmacological Treatments
| Drug | Drug Class | Typical Dosage | Timing | Common Side Effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ibuprofen | NSAID | 400–600 mg every 6–8 h | With meals | GI upset, headache, dizziness |
| Naproxen | NSAID | 250–500 mg every 12 h | With meals | Gastric irritation, fluid retention |
| Diclofenac | NSAID | 50 mg every 8 h | With food | Liver enzyme elevation, rash |
| Acetaminophen | Analgesic | 500–1000 mg every 6 h | Any time | Rare: liver toxicity (overdose) |
| Celecoxib | COX-2 inhibitor | 200 mg once or 100 mg twice daily | With food | Edema, hypertension |
| Cyclobenzaprine | Muscle relaxant | 5–10 mg 3 × daily | At bedtime if drowsy | Drowsiness, dry mouth |
| Metaxalone | Muscle relaxant | 800 mg 3–4 × daily | With food | Dizziness, GI upset |
| Gabapentin | Neuropathic agent | 300–1200 mg at bedtime | At night | Somnolence, peripheral edema |
| Pregabalin | Neuropathic agent | 75–150 mg twice daily | Morning & night | Weight gain, dizziness |
| Amitriptyline | TCA | 10–25 mg at bedtime | Night | Drowsiness, anticholinergic |
| Duloxetine | SNRI | 30 mg once daily | Morning | Nausea, insomnia |
| Tramadol | Opioid analgesic | 50–100 mg every 4–6 h | PRN | Constipation, drowsiness |
| Hydrocodone/APAP | Opioid combo | 5/325 mg every 4–6 h | PRN | Nausea, dependence |
| Prednisone (short course) | Corticosteroid | 10–20 mg daily × 5 days | Morning | Hyperglycemia, mood swings |
| Topical Diclofenac Gel | NSAID topical | Apply twice daily | Morning & night | Skin irritation |
| Lidocaine Patch 5% | Local anesthetic | One patch ≤ 12 h/day | PRN | Local erythema |
| Capsaicin Cream | Topical counterirritant | Apply 3–4 × daily | PRN | Burning sensation |
| Methocarbamol | Muscle relaxant | 1500 mg 4 × daily | PRN | Drowsiness |
| Tizanidine | Muscle relaxant | 2–4 mg every 6–8 h | PRN | Hypotension, dry mouth |
Dietary Supplements
| Supplement | Dosage | Functional Role | Mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucosamine Sulfate | 1500 mg daily | Cartilage support | Stimulates glycosaminoglycan synthesis |
| Chondroitin Sulfate | 1200 mg daily | Disc matrix health | Inhibits degradative enzymes |
| Omega-3 Fatty Acids | 1000 mg EPA/DHA daily | Anti-inflammatory | Modulates eicosanoid pathways |
| Vitamin D₃ | 1000–2000 IU daily | Bone health | Enhances calcium absorption |
| Magnesium | 300–400 mg daily | Muscle relaxation | Regulates neuromuscular conduction |
| Collagen Peptides | 10 g daily | Matrix repair | Provides amino acids for disc collagen |
| Turmeric (Curcumin) | 500 mg twice daily | Anti-inflammatory | Inhibits NF-κB signaling |
| Boswellia Serrata | 300 mg 3 × daily | Inflammation reduction | Blocks 5-lipoxygenase |
| Bromelain | 500 mg daily | Anti-edema | Degrades inflammatory mediators |
| MSM (Methylsulfonylmethane) | 1000 mg twice daily | Joint comfort | Supports collagen cross-linking |
Advanced “Biologic” and Regenerative Drugs
| Drug Type | Example & Dosage | Functional Role | Mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bisphosphonate | Alendronate 70 mg weekly | Bone density | Inhibits osteoclasts, protecting endplates |
| Hyaluronic Acid Injection | 2 mL into facets | Viscosupplement | Restores joint lubrication around C2–C3 |
| Platelet-Rich Plasma (PRP) | 3–5 mL autologous into disc | Regeneration | Releases growth factors (PDGF, TGF-β) |
| Mesenchymal Stem Cells | 1×10⁶ cells injection | Tissue repair | Differentiates into disc cells, anti-inflammatory |
| Growth Factor Cocktail | BMP-7 injection | Anabolic stimulus | Promotes disc matrix synthesis |
| TNF-α Inhibitor | Etanercept 50 mg weekly | Inflammation control | Blocks TNF-α to reduce catabolism |
| IL-1 Receptor Antagonist | Anakinra 100 mg daily | Inflammation control | Inhibits IL-1β-mediated degeneration |
| Autologous Chondrocyte Implant | Cell patch on annulus | Disc regeneration | Provides new chondrocytes for repair |
| Gene Therapy Vector | TIMP-1 plasmid injection | Matrix preservation | Increases tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases |
| PRP + MSC Combination | Concurrent injection | Synergistic repair | Combines growth factors and progenitor cells |
Surgical Options
Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Fusion (ACDF) – Remove the damaged disc frontally and fuse C2–C3 with a bone graft and plate to stabilize the spine.
Cervical Disc Arthroplasty – Disc removal followed by insertion of an artificial disc to preserve motion.
Posterior Cervical Foraminotomy – Remove bone/spurs from the back to enlarge the nerve exit and relieve radicular pain.
Micro-Endoscopic Discectomy – Minimally invasive removal of herniated disc fragments under endoscopic guidance.
Laminectomy – Removal of the posterior roof of the vertebra (lamina) to decompress the spinal cord.
Laminoplasty – Reconstruction of the lamina to expand the spinal canal without fusion.
Percutaneous Laser Disc Decompression – Laser vaporization of nucleus pulposus material to reduce disc bulge.
Percutaneous Radiofrequency Ablation – Heat-based shrinkage of disc tissue via needle electrode.
Cervical Artificial Disc Replacement – Similar to arthroplasty but using newer motion-preserving implants.
Posterior Cervical Fusion – Stabilization via rods and screws on the back of C2–C3, typically for multi-level disease.
Prevention Strategies
Regular Neck Exercises – Maintain strength and flexibility in cervical stabilizers.
Ergonomic Posture – Keep head aligned over shoulders during work and leisure.
Weight Management – Reduce mechanical load on the spine.
Smoking Cessation – Improves disc nutrition and slows degeneration.
Hydration – Adequate water intake preserves disc turgor.
Balanced Diet – Rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals for disc health.
Frequent Breaks – Avoid prolonged static positions; change posture every 30 minutes.
Use of Supportive Pillows – Cervical contour pillows support neutral neck alignment during sleep.
Safe Lifting Techniques – Bend at knees, keep load close, avoid twisting.
Stress Management – Reduces para-spinal muscle tension that can worsen disc stress.
When to See a Doctor
Severe or Worsening Pain that does not improve after 1–2 weeks of home care
Neurological Signs: Numbness, tingling, or weakness in arms or hands
Balance or Coordination Loss: Signs of spinal cord compression
Bladder or Bowel Dysfunction: Possible emergency indicating cord involvement
High Fever with Neck Stiffness: Suggests infection (discitis or meningitis)
Frequently Asked Questions
What exactly is a cervical disc derangement?
A tear or bulge of the disc between C2 and C3 that can press on nerves, causing pain and numbness.Can C2–C3 disc problems cause headaches?
Yes—pressure on upper cervical nerves often refers pain to the head (cervicogenic headache).How long does recovery take?
Mild cases improve in 6–8 weeks with conservative care; severe cases may need surgery.Are exercises safe?
When guided by a therapist, targeted neck exercises are safe and help stabilize the spine.Will I need surgery?
Only if non-surgical treatments fail or if you have worsening neurological deficits.Can diet help?
Anti-inflammatory foods (e.g., omega-3 rich fish) and adequate hydration support disc health.Is stem cell therapy proven?
Early studies show promise, but long-term safety and efficacy are still under investigation.Can I drive with this condition?
If pain or stiffness limits turning your head safely, avoid driving until cleared.Do supplements really work?
Some (glucosamine, chondroitin) may support cartilage, but results vary between individuals.How can I sleep without pain?
Use a cervical pillow and sleep on your back or side with the neck neutrally aligned.Is acupuncture effective?
Many patients report pain relief, likely due to endorphin release and improved circulation.Should I use a neck brace?
A soft collar can help short-term, but prolonged use may weaken neck muscles.What red-flags require immediate care?
Sudden weakness, loss of balance, or bladder/bowel changes need urgent evaluation.Will my disc heal?
Discs have limited blood supply, so healing is slow; but many herniations shrink over months.How can I prevent recurrence?
Maintain neck strength, practice good posture, and avoid high-impact activities that jar the spine.
Disclaimer: Each person’s journey is unique, treatment plan, life style, food habit, hormonal condition, immune system, chronic disease condition, geological location, weather and previous medical history is also unique. So always seek the best advice from a qualified medical professional or health care provider before trying any treatments to ensure to find out the best plan for you. This guide is for general information and educational purposes only. Regular check-ups and awareness can help to manage and prevent complications associated with these diseases conditions. If you or someone are suffering from this disease condition bookmark this website or share with someone who might find it useful! Boost your knowledge and stay ahead in your health journey. We always try to ensure that the content is regularly updated to reflect the latest medical research and treatment options. Thank you for giving your valuable time to read the article.
The article is written by Team Rxharun and reviewed by the Rx Editorial Board Members
Last Updated: May 07, 2025.
