Types of Surgery

Surgery is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pathological condition such as a disease or injury, to help improve bodily function and appearance, or to repair unwanted ruptured areas.

The act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply “surgery.” In this context, the verb “operate” means to perform surgery. The adjective surgical means surgery, e.g., surgical instruments or surgical nurse. The person or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal.

Types of Surgery

Surgical procedures are categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, degree of invasiveness, and unique instrumentation.

  • Based on timing: Elective surgery is done to correct a non-life-threatening condition and is carried out at the person’s request, subject to the surgeon’s and the surgical facility’s availability. A semi-elective surgery must be done to avoid permanent disability or death but can be postponed for a short time. Emergency surgery must be done without delay to prevent death, severe disabilities, and loss of limbs and functions.
  • Based on purpose: Exploratory surgery is performed to aid or confirm a diagnosis. Therapeutic surgery treats a previously diagnosed condition. Cosmetic surgery is done to subjectively improve the appearance of an otherwise standard structure.

By type of procedure

Amputation involves cutting off a body part, usually a limb or digit; castration is also an example.

  • Resection – is the removal of all of an internal organ or body part or an essential part (lung lobe; liver quadrant) of such an organ or body part that has its name or code designation. A segmental resection can be of a smaller region of an organ, such as a hepatic or a bronchopulmonary segment.
  • Excision – is the cutting out or removal of only part of an organ, tissue, or another body part from the person.
  • Extirpation – is the complete excision or surgical destruction of a body part.[3] Replantation involves reattaching a severed body part. Reconstructive surgery involves reconstructing an injured, mutilated, or deformed body part. Transplant surgery is the replacement of an organ or body part by insertion of another from a different human (or animal) into the person undergoing surgery. Removing an organ or body part from a live human or animal for use in a transplant is also a type of surgery.
  • By body part – Surgery on one organ system or structure may be classed by the organ, organ system, or tissue involved. Examples include cardiac surgery (performed on the heart), gastrointestinal surgery (completed within the digestive tract and its accessory organs), and orthopedic surgery (performed on bones or muscles).
  • By degree of invasiveness of surgical procedures – Minimally-invasive surgery involves smaller outer incisions to insert miniaturized instruments within a body cavity or structure, as in laparoscopic surgery or angioplasty. By contrast, an open surgical procedure such as a laparotomy requires a large incision to access the area of interest.
  • By equipment used – Laser surgery involves using a laser to cut tissue instead of a scalpel or similar surgical instruments. Microsurgery consists in using an operating microscope for the surgeon to see small structures. Robotic surgery uses a surgical robot, such as the Da Vinci or the ZEUS mechanical surgical systems, to control the instrumentation under the surgeon’s direction.

List of -ostomies

Gastrointestinal

  • Gastrostomy
    • Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy
  • Gastroduodenostomy
  • Gastroenterostomy
  • Ileostomy
  • Jejunostomy
  • Colostomy
  • Cholecystostomy
  • Hepatoportoenterostomy

Urogenital

  • Hysterectomy
  • bycromostomy
  • Gechronostomy
  • Midgeostomy
  • Beemissionostomy
  • Athonostomy
  • Zhenrotchostomy
  • bimbisterostomy
  • purpobrocheostomy
  • airflighteostomy
  • Nephrostomy
  • Ureterostomy
  • Cystostomy
    • Suprapubic cystostomy
  • Urostomy

List of -ectomies

A

  • Adenectomy is the surgical removal of a gland.
  • Adenoidectomy is the surgical removal of the adenoids, also known as the pharyngeal tonsils.
  • Adrenalectomy is the removal of one or both adrenal glands.
  • Apicoectomy is the surgical removal of a tooth’s root tip.
  • Appendectomy is the surgical removal of the appendix, also known as an appendicectomy.
  • Atherectomy is the removal of a joint of the body.
  • Auriculectomy is the removal of the ear

B

  • Bullectomy is the surgical removal of bullae from the lung.
  • Bunionectomy is the removal of a bunion.
  • Bursectomy is the removal of a bursa, a small sac filled with synovial fluid.

C

  • Cardiectomy is the removal of the cardia of the stomach.
  • Cecectomy is the removal of the cecum.
  • Cephalectomy is the surgical removal of the head (decapitation).
  • Cervicectomy is the removal of the cervix.
  • Cholecystectomy is the surgical removal of the gallbladder.
  • Thyroidectomy is the removal of the choroid layer of the eye.
  • Clitoridectomy is the partial or total removal of the external part of the clitoris.
  • Colectomy is the removal of the colon.
  • Craniectomy is the surgical removal of a portion of the skull.
  • Cystectomy is the removal of the urinary bladder. It also means the removal of a cyst.
  • Corpectomy is the removal of a vertebral body and the adjacent intervertebral discs spine.

D

  • Discectomy is a surgical procedure involving the dissection of an extravasated segment of the intervertebral disc.
  • Diverticulectomy is a surgical procedure to remove a diverticulum.
  • Duodenectomy is the removal of the duodenum.

E

  • Embolectomy is the removal of any type of embolism.
  • Encephalectomy is the removal of the brain.
  • Endarterectomy removes plaque from the artery lining otherwise constricted by a buildup of fatty deposits.
  • Endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy is the burning, severing, removing, or clamping of parts of the sympathetic nerve trunk.
  • Esophagectomy is the surgical removal of all or part of the esophagus.
  • Extrapleural pneumonectomy removes the entire lung along with the pleura, the lung lining, and part of the pericardium, the heart’s lining.

F

  • Frenectomy is the removal of a frenulum.
  • Fundectomy is the removal of the fundus of an organ, such as the uterus or the stomach.

G

  • Ganglionectomy is the excision of a ganglion.
  • Gastrectomy is the partial or total removal of the stomach.
  • Gingivectomy is the removal of gums.
  • Glossectomy is the removal of part or all of the tongue.
  • Gonadectomy is the removal of the gonads.

H

  • Hemicolectomy is the removal of half the colon or the large intestine.
  • Hemicorporectomy is the surgical amputation of the entire body below the waist, including the legs, genitalia, urinary system, pelvic bones, anus, and rectum.
  • Hemilaminectomy is the surgical trimming or partial removal of the lamina portion of a spinal vertebra.
  • Hemipelvectomy is the surgical removal of half of the pelvis and one of the legs. There are two types of operation: an internal hemipelvectomy in which the pelvis on one side is removed, but the leg is saved. The second type of operation is an external hemipelvectomy, which eliminates the pelvis on one side and amputates that leg.
  • Hemispherectomy is the surgical removal of one cerebral hemisphere.
  • Hemorrhoidectomy is the removal of hemorrhoids.
  • Hepatectomy is the surgical resection of the liver.
  • Hypophysectomy is the surgical removal of the pituitary gland or hypophysis, such as when presented with a tumor.
  • Hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus.

I

  • Iridectomy removes a piece of iris from the eye (mainly done for iris tumors, such as melanoma).
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J

  • Jejunectomy is the surgical removal of all or part of the jejunum.

K

  • Keratectomy is the surgical removal of the cornea of the eye.
  • Kyphectomy is a specific surgery on the spine.

L

  • Laminectomy is the trimming or surgical removal of the lamina, a portion of the spinal vertebrae.
  • Laryngectomy is the surgical removal of the larynx, which involves separating the airway from the mouth, nose, and esophagus.
  • Lobectomy is the removal of a lobe.
  • Lumpectomy is the surgical removal of a lump from a breast.
  • Lymphadenectomy involves the surgical removal of one or more groups of lymph nodes.

M

  • Mandibulectomy is the removal of the mandible or the lower jaw bone.
  • Mastectomy is the surgical removal of one or both breasts. A mastectomy can be either partial or complete.
  • Mastoidectomy is the removal of the mastoid process.
  • Maxillectomy is the removal of the maxilla or cheekbone. This can sometimes be done with orbital exenteration (removal of the eye and the orbital contents surrounding the eye) or by enucleation (removal of the eyeball).
  • Meniscectomy is the surgical removal of all or part of a torn meniscus, which is a common knee joint injury. Surgeons over total meniscectomy prefer partial meniscectomy.
  • Myectomy is the removal of a portion of the muscle.
  • Myomectomy removes fibroids from the uterus, but the uterus is left intact.

N

  • Necrosectomy is the removal of dead tissue.
  • Nephrectomy is the removal of a kidney.
  • Neurectomy is the removal of a nerve.

O

  • Oophorectomy is the surgical removal of the ovaries, also called spaying.
  • Orchiectomy is the surgical removal of the testicles, called orchidectomy, castration, or neutering.
  • Ostectomy is the surgical removal of bone.

P

  • Pancreatectomy is the removal of part or all of the pancreas. If the whole pancreas is removed, the person will develop diabetes.
  • Pancreaticoduodenectomy is the surgical removal involving the pancreas and the duodenum.
  • Panniculectomy removes a panniculus, a dense layer of fatty tissue growth consisting of subcutaneous fat in the lower abdominal area.
  • Parathyroidectomy is the surgical removal of one or more of the parathyroid glands.
  • Penectomy is the partial or complete removal of the penis. Also known as an appendectomy.
  • Pericardiectomy is the partial or complete removal of the pericardial sac around the heart.
  • Laryngectomy is the removal of the pharynx (also called the throat).
  • Pharyngolaryngoesophagectomy is the surgical removal of the pharynx, larynx, and esophagus, usually as a result of cancer of the hypopharynx.
  • Photorefractive keratectomy is the alteration of the cornea employing a laser.
  • Pinealectomy is the surgical removal of the pineal gland, often used on birds to study circadian rhythms.
  • Pneumonectomy is the surgical removal of a lung.
  • Posthectomy, more commonly known as circumcision, is the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis. This is also known as a prepucectomy, as the medical term for the foreskin is the prepuce.
  • Proctocolectomy removes the colon or the large intestine and the rectum.
  • Prostatectomy is the removal of the prostate gland. This may be either all of the gland, known as radical prostatectomy or just a part of the prostate, called a transurethral resection of the prostate.
  • A pulpectomy removes all the material in a tooth’s pulp chamber and root canal.

Q

  • Quadrantectomy is a surgical procedure in which a quadrant (approximately one-fourth) of the breast, including tissue surrounding a cancerous tumor, is removed.

R

  • Rhinectomy is the removal of part or all of the nose.

S

  • Salpingectomy is the removal of the fallopian tubes.
  • Salpingo-oophorectomy is the removal of the ovary and the fallopian tube; when both the left and right tubes and ovaries are removed, this is referred to as a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy.
  • Scaphoidectomy[1]
  • Septectomy is the removal of a septum.
  • Splenectomy is the surgical removal of the spleen. Autosplenectomy is where certain diseases destroy the spleen’s function.
  • Stapedectomy is the removal of ossified stapes from the ear that is then replaced by a prosthesis.
  • Sympathectomy is the cutting of the nerves.
  • Synovectomy is the removal of the synovial membrane of a synovial joint.

T

  • Thrombectomy is the removal of thrombi (blood clots).
  • Thymectomy is the surgical removal of the thymus gland.
  • Thyroidectomy is the removal of all or part of the thyroid gland.
  • Tonsillectomy is the removal of the tonsils.
  • Trabeculectomy removes part of the eye’s trabecular meshwork as a treatment for glaucoma.
  • Tumorectomy is the surgical removal of a tumor.
  • Turbinectomy is the removal of the turbinate bones in the nasal passage.
  • Tympanectomy is the removal of the eardrum.
  • Tubectomy in this, a small part of the fallopian tube/oviduct/uterine tube/salpinx is removed or tied up through a small incision in the abdomen or through the vagina/birth canal.

U

  • Frenectomy is the removal of the ureter.
  • Uvulectomy is the removal of the uvula.

V

  • Vaginectomy is the removal of all or part of the vagina.
  • Vasectomy is the surgical occlusion of the vas deferens, tubes that connect to the male testes and transport sperm, a procedure for sterilization in males.
  • Vesiculectomy is the removal of all or part of the seminal vesicle.
  • Vitrectomy removes some or all of the vitreous humor from the eye.
  • Vulvectomy is the removal of all or part of the vulva.

Surgery  procedures

  • Amniotomy — An incision created to accelerate labor.
  • Androtomy — Dissection of the human body.
  • Bilateral cingulotomy — Psychosurgery, treatment for depression and addiction.
  • Bronchotomy — A procedure that ensures an open airway between a patient’s lung/s and the outside world.
  • Clitoridectomy — Plastic surgery of the clitorial hood.
  • Coeliotomy — A large incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity
  • Colpotomy — Extraction of fluid from the pouch of Douglas (a rectouterine pouch[1] posterior to the vagina) through a needle
  • Cordotomy — Procedure that disables selected pain-conducting tracts in the spinal cord to achieve a loss of pain and temperature perception
  • Craniotomy — A bone flap is temporarily removed from the skull to access the brain
  • Cricothyrotomy — An incision made through the skin and cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent airway during certain life-threatening situations
  • Escharotomy — Procedure used to treat full-thickness (third-degree) circumferential burns
  • Episiotomy — Surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall
  • Fasciotomy — Surgical procedure where the fascia is cut to relieve tension or pressure, commonly to treat the resulting loss of circulation to an area of tissue or muscle
  • Heller myotomy — Muscles of the cardia (lower oesophageal sphincter or LOS) are cut, allowing food and liquids to pass to the stomach.
  • Hymenotomy — Surgical removal or opening of the hymen
  • Hysterotomy — Incision in the uterus, and is performed during a Caesarean section
  • Laminotomy — The partial removal (or by making a larger opening) of the lamina.
  • Laparotomy — Large incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity
  • Lithotomy position — Medical term referring to a common situation for surgical procedures and medical examinations involving the pelvis and lower abdomen
  • Lobotomy — Cutting or scraping away most of the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, the anterior part of the brain’s frontal lobes.
  • Meatotomy — Form of penile modification in which the underside of the glans is split
  • Myotomy — Procedure in which muscle is cut.
  • Osteotomy — A bone is cut to shorten or lengthen it or to change its alignment
  • Phlebotomy — An incision in a vein with a needle
  • Pulpotomy — Removal of a portion of the pulp, including the diseased aspect
  • Radial keratotomy — a refractive surgical procedure to correct myopia
  • Sphincterotomy — Treating mucosal fissures from the anal canal/sphincter
  • Thoracotomy — Incision into the pleural space of the chest
  • Thyrotomy — Incision of the larynx through the thyroid cartilage
  • Tracheotomy — An incision on the anterior aspect of the neck and opening of a direct airway through an incision in the trachea (windpipe)
  • Trans-orbital lobotomy — Cutting or scraping away most of the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain
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Other -stories

  • Dichotomy
  • False dichotomy
  • Ousterhout’s dichotomy
  • Trichotomy
  • Trichotomy property

Preoperative care

Before surgery, the person is given a medical examination, receives specific preoperative tests, and their physical status is rated according to the ASA physical status classification system. If these results are satisfactory, the person requiring surgery signs a consent form and is given a surgical clearance. If the procedure is expected to result in significant blood loss, an autologous blood donation may be made some weeks before surgery. If the surgery involves the digestive system, the person requiring surgery may be instructed to perform a bowel prep by drinking a polyethylene glycol solution the night before the procedure. People preparing for surgery are also recommended to abstain from food or drink (an NPO order after midnight on the night before the system) to minimize the effect of stomach contents on preoperative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the person vomits during or after the process.

Some medical systems have a practice of routinely performing chest x-rays before surgery. The premise behind this practice is that the physician might discover some unknown medical condition that would complicate the surgery. Upon discovering this with the chest x-ray, the physician would adapt the surgery practice accordingly.[7] However, medical specialty professional organizations recommend against routine preoperative chest x-rays for people with unremarkable medical history who presented with a physical exam that did not indicate a chest x-ray.[7] Routine x-ray examination is more likely to result in problems like misdiagnosis, overtreatment, or other adverse outcomes than it is to benefit the person.[7] Likewise, other tests, including complete blood count, prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, basic metabolic panel, and urinalysis, should not be done unless the results of these tests can help evaluate surgical risk.[8]

Staging for surgery

The preoperative holding area[9] is so important in the surgical phase since here is where most of the family members can see who the surgery staff will be. Also, this area is where the nurses give information to the patient’s family members. In the preoperative holding area, the person preparing for surgery changes out of their street clothes and is asked to confirm the details of their surgery. A set of vital signs are recorded, a peripheral IV line is placed, and preoperative medications (antibiotics, sedatives, etc.) are given.[10] When the person enters the operating room, the skin surface to be operated on, called the operative field, is cleaned and prepared by applying an antiseptic (ideally chlorhexidine gluconate in alcohol, as this is twice as effective as povidone-iodine at reducing the risk of infection).[11] If hair is present at the surgical site, it is clipped off before prep application. An anesthesiologist or resident assists the person in making a specific surgical position; then sterile drapes are used to cover the surgical site or at least a wide area surrounding the operating field; the drapes are clipped to a pair of poles near the head of the bed to form an “ether screen,” which separates the anesthetist/anesthesiologist’s working area (unsterile) from the surgical site (sterile).[12]

Anesthesia is administered to prevent pain from an incision, tissue manipulation, and suturing. Depending on the operation, anesthesia may be provided locally or as general anesthesia. Spinal anesthesia may be used when the surgical site is too large or deep for a local block, but general anesthesia may not be desirable. The surgical area is anesthetized with local and spinal anesthesia, but the person can remain conscious or minimally sedated. In contrast, general anesthesia renders the person unconscious and paralyzed during surgery. The person is intubated and placed on a mechanical ventilator, and anesthesia is produced by a combination of injected and inhaled agents. Choice of surgical method and anesthetic technique aims to reduce the risk of complications, shorten the time needed for recovery and minimize the surgical stress response.

Intraoperative phase

The intraoperative phase begins when the surgery subject is received in the surgical area (such as the operating theater or surgical department) and lasts until the issue is transferred to a recovery area (such as a post-anesthesia care unit).[13]

An incision is made to access the surgical site. Blood vessels may be clamped or cauterized to prevent bleeding, and retractors may be used to expose the site or keep the incision open. The approach to the surgical site may involve several layers of incision and dissection, as in abdominal surgery, where the incision must traverse skin, subcutaneous tissue, three layers of muscle, and then the peritoneum. In some instances, the bone may be cut to further access the body’s interior; for example, cutting the skull for brain surgery or cutting the sternum for thoracic (chest) surgery to open up the rib cage. The surgery uses an aseptic technique to prevent infection or further disease spreading. The surgeons’ and assistants’ hands, wrists, and forearms are washed thoroughly for at least 4 minutes to prevent germs from getting into the operative field, and then sterile gloves are placed onto their hands. An antiseptic solution is applied to the area of the person’s body that will be operated on. Sterile drapes are placed around the operative site. The surgical team wears masks to avoid germs on liquid droplets from their mouths and noses contaminating the operative site.

Work to correct the problem in the body then proceeds. This work may involve:

  • Excision – cutting out an organ, tumor, or other tissue.
  • Resection – partial removal of an organ or different bodily structure.
  • Reconnection of organs and tissues –  particularly if severed. Resection of organs such as intestines involves reconnection. Internal suturing or stapling may be used. The surgical connection between blood vessels or other tubular or hollow structures such as loops of the intestine is called anastomosis.
  • Reduction – the movement or realignment of a body part to its normal position. e.g., the Reduction of a broken nose involves the physical manipulation of the bone or cartilage from their displaced state back to their original position to restore normal airflow and aesthetics.
  • Ligation – tying off blood vessels, ducts, or “tubes.”
  • Grafts – may be severed pieces of tissue cut from the same (or different) body or flaps of tissue still partly connected to the body but resewn for rearranging or restructuring the area of the body in question. Although grafting is often used in cosmetic surgery, it is also used in other surgery. Grafts may be taken from one area of the person’s body and inserted into another area of the body. An example is bypass surgery, where clogged blood vessels are bypassed with a graft from another body part. Alternatively, grafts may be from other persons, cadavers, or animals.
  • Insert prosthetic parts when needed – Pins or screws to set and hold bones may be used. Sections of bone may be replaced with prosthetic rods or other components. Sometimes a plate is inserted to replace a damaged area of the skull. Artificial hip replacement has become more common. Heart pacemakers or valves may be inserted. Many other types of prostheses are used.
  • Creation of a stoma – a permanent or semi-permanent opening in the body in transplant surgery, the donor organ (taken out of the donor’s body) is inserted into the recipient’s body and reconnected to the recipient in all necessary ways (blood vessels, ducts, etc.).
  • Arthrodesis – surgical connection of adjacent bones so the bones can grow together into one. Spinal fusion is an example of adjacent vertebrae connected, allowing them to grow together into one piece. Modifying the digestive tract in bariatric surgery for weight loss. Repair of a fistula, hernia, or prolapse.
  • Repair –  according to the ICD-10-PCS, in the Medical and Surgical Section 0, root operation Q, means restoring, to the extent possible, a body part to its standard anatomic structure and function. This definition, repair, is used only when the method used to accomplish the repair is not one of the other root operations. Examples would be colostomy takedown, herniorrhaphy of a hernia, and the surgical suture of a laceration.
  • Other procedures include:
  • clearing clogged ducts, blood, or other vessels
  • removal of calculi (stones)
  • draining of accumulated fluids
  • debridement – removal of dead, damaged, or diseased tissue
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Blood or blood expanders may be administered to compensate for blood lost during surgery. Once the procedure is complete, sutures or staples are used to close the incision. Once the incision is closed, the anesthetic agents are stopped or reversed, and the person is taken off ventilation and extubated (if general anesthesia was administered).[15]

Postoperative care

After completion of the surgery, the person is transferred to the post-anesthesia care unit and closely monitored. When the person is judged to have recovered from the anesthesia, they are either transferred to a surgical ward elsewhere in the hospital or discharged home. During the postoperative period, the person’s general function is assessed, the procedure’s outcome is set, and the surgical site is checked for signs of infection. Several risk factors are associated with postoperative complications, such as immune deficiency and obesity. Obesity has long been considered a risk factor for adverse post-surgical outcomes. It has been linked to many disorders such as obesity hypoventilation syndrome, atelectasis, pulmonary embolism, adverse cardiovascular effects, and wound healing complications.[16] If removable skin closures are used, they are removed after 7 to 10 days postoperatively or after healing of the incision is well underway.

Surgical drains are not uncommon to be required to remove blood or fluid from the surgical wound during recovery. Mostly these drains stay in until the volume tapers off, then they are released. These drains can become clogged, leading to abscesses.

Postoperative therapy may include adjuvant treatment such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or administration of medication such as anti-rejection medication for transplants. For postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV), solutions like saline, water, controlled breathing placebo, and aromatherapy can be used in addition to medication.[17] Other follow-up studies or rehabilitation may be prescribed during and after recovery.

The use of topical antibiotics on surgical wounds to reduce infection rates has been questioned.[18] Antibiotic ointments are likely to irritate the skin, slow healing, and could increase the risk of developing contact dermatitis and antibiotic resistance.[18] It has also been suggested that topical antibiotics should only be used when a person shows signs of infection, not as a preventative.[18] A systematic review published by Cochrane (organization) in 2016 concluded that topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds reduce the risk of surgical site infections compared to no treatment or use of antiseptics.[19] The review also did not find conclusive evidence to suggest that topical antibiotics increased the risk of local skin reactions or antibiotic resistance.

Through a retrospective analysis of national administrative data, the association between mortality and the day of the elective surgical procedure suggests a higher risk in operations carried out later in the working week and on weekends. The odds of death were 44% and 82% higher when comparing policies on a Friday to a weekend procedure. This “weekday effect” has been postulated from several factors, including poorer availability of services on the weekend and decreased number and level of experience over a weekend.[20]

Postoperative pain affects an estimated 80% of people who undergo surgery.[21] While pain is expected after surgery, there is growing evidence that pain may be inadequately treated in many people in the acute period immediately after surgery. It has been reported that the incidence of poorly controlled pain after surgery ranged from 25.1% to 78.4% across all surgical disciplines.[22] There is insufficient evidence to determine if giving opioid pain medication pre-emptively (before surgery) reduces postoperative pain and the amount of medication needed after surgery.[21]

Postoperative recovery has been defined as an energy‐requiring process to decrease physical symptoms, reach a level of emotional well‐being, regain functions, and re‐establish activities.[23] Moreover, it has been identified that patients who have undergone surgery are often not fully recovered on discharge.

Reference