Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy

Endothelial corneal dystrophy is a long-lasting eye disease that mainly damages the inner cell layer of the cornea, called the corneal endothelium. These cells normally act like a tiny pump to keep the cornea clear and free of extra water. In this disease, the endothelial cells slowly die and cannot pump fluid out. Water then builds up inside the cornea, making it swollen, cloudy, and less transparent. Over time, this can cause blurred vision, glare, and, in severe cases, major vision loss if it is not treated. Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD) is the most common form in adults and is often what doctors mean when they say “endothelial corneal dystrophy.” EyeWiki+2NCBI+2

Endothelial corneal dystrophy most often means Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy. It is a long-term eye disease where the inner cell layer of the cornea (the clear front window of the eye) slowly dies and cannot pump water out of the cornea properly. As fluid builds up, the cornea becomes thick, swollen, and cloudy. People may notice blurred vision, especially in the morning, glare, halos around lights, and sometimes painful blisters on the surface. The disease is usually slowly progressive and often runs in families.EyeWiki+1

In this condition, the corneal endothelial cells are lost faster than normal. These cells do not grow back, so the remaining cells spread out and become stressed. With time, tiny bumps called guttae form on the inner corneal surface. Light scatters on these rough areas and through the swollen tissue, causing glare and blurred vision. Eventually, scarring may occur and vision may not improve even with glasses or contact lenses. At advanced stages, surgery to replace the damaged endothelial layer is often needed.EyeWiki+2PMC+2

Other names

Doctors and books use several different names for endothelial corneal dystrophy, especially for the common adult type. These include Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy, Fuchs’ endothelial dystrophy, Fuchs’ corneal dystrophy, and Fuchs dystrophy. Some older texts may also use the term Fuchs atrophy. All these names usually refer to the same main condition, in which the corneal endothelium slowly stops working and the cornea becomes swollen and cloudy over many years. MedlinePlus+2MalaCards+2

Types of endothelial corneal dystrophy

Endothelial corneal dystrophy is not a single disease. It is a group of related conditions that all affect the inner layer of the cornea but in slightly different ways, ages, and genetic patterns. The most common type is Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy, which usually starts in mid-life or later. Other types appear in babies or children and are often called congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophies or posterior polymorphous dystrophies. All of them share the problem of weak or abnormal endothelial cells that cannot keep the cornea clear and dry. Wikipedia+2NCBI+2

• Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (late-onset FECD) – This is the classic adult form. It usually starts after age 40–50 and worsens slowly over decades. Small bumps called “guttae” form on Descemet’s membrane (the thin layer under the endothelium). Later, the cornea swells, causing morning blur, glare, and sometimes painful blisters. EyeWiki+2EyeWiki+2

• Early-onset Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy – This rare type appears earlier in life and is often linked to mutations in the COL8A2 gene. It can cause more severe changes in Descemet’s membrane at a younger age. Wikipedia+2ScienceDirect+2

• Congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophy (CHED) – This form is present at birth or early childhood. The cornea looks cloudy from a very young age because the endothelium does not work properly from the start. It is strongly genetic and often runs in families. Wikipedia+1

• Posterior polymorphous corneal dystrophy (PPCD or PPMD) – In this type, the endothelial cells look more like skin cells and can grow in abnormal patterns. It may remain mild, but in some people it can also lead to corneal swelling and even raise eye pressure. Wikipedia+1

• X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy (XECD) – This is a rare inherited form linked to genes on the X chromosome. It mainly affects males in a family but can show milder effects in females. It can cause corneal haze and reduced vision early in life. Wikipedia+1

• Secondary endothelial decompensation (not a true dystrophy but similar effect) – The cornea can also lose endothelial cells after eye surgery, trauma, or long-term inflammation. This is not genetic, but the final picture (swollen, painful cornea) can look very similar to advanced dystrophy. PMC+2PMC+2

Causes and risk factors

Endothelial corneal dystrophy usually develops slowly over many years. There is no single cause. Instead, several genes and risk factors work together and damage endothelial cells over time. Doctors talk about “risk factors” because they increase the chance of disease but do not always cause it alone. NCBI+2MDPI+2

1. Genetic changes in key genes
   Many patients have changes (mutations or repeat expansions) in genes such as TCF4, COL8A2, SLC4A11, or ZEB1. These genes are important for the health and survival of endothelial cells and Descemet’s membrane. When they do not work properly, the cells are more likely to die early and the cornea becomes thick and cloudy. Wikipedia+2ScienceDirect+2

2. Positive family history
   Endothelial corneal dystrophy often runs in families in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means a child may be affected if one parent carries the gene change. Family studies show that many patients have affected parents, siblings, or children. This strong family link shows how important inherited factors are in this disease. NCBI+2NCBI+2

3. Increasing age
   The disease is much more common after age 50, and the severity usually rises with age. Normal aging already causes a slow loss of endothelial cells, so people with genetic risk may reach a “tipping point” later in life when the pump fails and swelling appears. Dove Medical Press+2IOVS+2

4. Female sex
   Many studies show that Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy is more common in women than in men. The reason is not fully clear, but hormone changes and differences in gene expression may play a role. This sex pattern is seen in many clinical series. NCBI+1

5. Oxidative stress in the cornea
   Research shows higher levels of oxidative stress (damage from reactive oxygen species) in the corneal endothelium of affected patients. Oxidative stress harms cell membranes, proteins, and DNA, making endothelial cells more likely to die. Over time, this can drive progression of the dystrophy. Dove Medical Press+1

6. Abnormal Descemet’s membrane and guttae
   In many cases the layer under the endothelium becomes thick and bumpy, forming guttae. These bumps disturb the normal position and function of endothelial cells and reflect a long history of abnormal collagen and extracellular matrix production. They also make the optical surface irregular and lower visual quality. EyeWiki+2EyeWiki+2

7. Previous intraocular surgery
   Eye operations such as cataract surgery put mechanical and fluid stress on the endothelial layer. People who already have low endothelial cell counts or early dystrophy are at higher risk of faster cell loss after surgery, which can trigger or worsen corneal edema. PMC+2PMC+2

8. Eye trauma
   Direct injury to the cornea or inside of the eye can damage endothelial cells. Even if the trauma happened years before, the reduced cell reserve can make the eye more sensitive to later stress and may unmask latent dystrophy. ScienceDirect+2Longdom+2

9. Long-term contact lens wear (especially low-oxygen lenses)
   Old-style or poorly fitted contact lenses can reduce oxygen reaching the cornea and cause chronic low-level swelling and stress. This long-term hypoxia and mechanical rubbing can contribute to endothelial cell loss or make an existing dystrophy worse. Nature+1

10. Diabetes and metabolic disease
    Some studies link diabetes and other systemic diseases to lower endothelial cell density and more damage after surgery. High blood sugar and metabolic stress may make endothelial cells more fragile and easier to injure. ScienceDirect+2GJCSRO+2

11. Cardiovascular disease and high blood pressure
    People with cardiovascular problems, such as high blood pressure, may have more endothelial dysfunction in small vessels and tissues, including the eye. These systemic vascular risks can be associated with more severe corneal endothelial changes and fluid build-up. ScienceDirect+1

12. Chronic eye inflammation
    Long-lasting uveitis or other intraocular inflammation can release inflammatory molecules into the aqueous humor. These molecules can injure endothelial cells and add to genetic weakness, helping the dystrophy progress. Dove Medical Press+2Wikipedia+2

13. High intraocular pressure (IOP)
    Increased eye pressure, as seen in glaucoma or ocular hypertension, can mechanically stress the cornea from inside. Over time, this extra pressure can speed up endothelial cell damage and make existing dystrophy more likely to decompensate. arXiv+1

14. Smoking
    Smoking increases oxidative stress and reduces blood flow in many tissues. Studies of corneal and vascular health suggest that smoking can worsen oxidative damage and may be linked to more rapid endothelial cell loss or poorer corneal healing. ScienceDirect+1

15. Chronic lung or systemic disease
    Some systemic conditions, such as chronic lung disease, have been identified as risk factors for reduced endothelial cell density even before surgery. Low oxygen levels and systemic inflammation may stress the cornea. ScienceDirect+1

16. Hormonal and menopausal changes
    Because FECD is more common in women and often becomes worse around menopause, researchers think that shifts in hormones like estrogen may play a role. Hormones can affect the corneal surface, thickness, and fluid balance, which may influence endothelial health. Dove Medical Press+1

17. Abnormal cell death (apoptosis) pathways
    Endothelial cells in FECD show signs of increased apoptosis. Gene and protein studies suggest that altered cell-death pathways, possibly driven by TCF4-related changes, make the cells more likely to die earlier than normal. NCBI+2Dove Medical Press+2

18. Epigenetic and DNA methylation changes
    Modern “omics” studies show that DNA methylation and microRNA patterns are altered in corneal endothelial cells in FECD. These epigenetic changes can switch genes on or off in harmful ways, further weakening the cells even when DNA sequence is unchanged. MDPI

19. Abnormal aqueous humor composition
    In some patients, proteins and other molecules in the aqueous humor (the fluid in front of the eye) are different from normal. These changes may increase oxidative stress or inflammation around endothelial cells and speed up disease. MDPI+1

20. Associated corneal diseases and surgery-related conditions
    Conditions like bullous keratopathy after cataract surgery share the same final pathway of endothelial failure and stromal edema. Patients with these conditions may also have underlying endothelial dystrophy that becomes obvious after surgical stress. Wikipedia+2MDPI+2

Symptoms and signs

The symptoms of endothelial corneal dystrophy usually start mild and slowly become worse over many years. Early disease may not cause any noticeable problems, and patients may only be diagnosed during a routine eye exam. As endothelial cells fail and the cornea swells, vision and comfort are more clearly affected. EyeWiki+2Cleveland Clinic+2

1. Blurred or hazy vision
   Blurry vision is the most common symptom. Extra water in the cornea scatters light instead of letting it pass cleanly, so details look foggy or soft even with the correct glasses. EyeWiki+2Cleveland Clinic+2

2. Vision worse in the morning
   Many people say their vision is worst when they first wake up and then slowly improves during the day. At night, the eyes are closed and tear evaporation is lower, so the cornea collects more water. As you blink and the surface dries during the day, some of this extra fluid leaves and vision becomes a bit clearer. EyeWiki+1

3. Glare from lights
   Streetlights, car headlights, and indoor lights can cause strong glare. The swollen and uneven corneal surface creates bright streaks or starbursts around light sources, especially at night. EyeWiki+2Cleveland Clinic+2

4. Halos around lights
   People often notice colored rings or halos around lights. These halos are caused by light scattering through small pockets of fluid in the cornea, similar to light passing through fog. EyeWiki+1

5. Reduced contrast and “washed-out” vision
   Even when objects are technically visible, they may look flat and less crisp. Studies show that contrast sensitivity is reduced even in early stages, meaning it is harder to see small differences between light and dark areas. EyeWiki+2ScienceDirect+2

6. Fluctuating vision during the day
   Vision may change through the day, better at some times and worse at others. This happens because the amount of fluid in the cornea is not constant; it can vary with humidity, blinking, and eye rubbing. EyeWiki+1

7. Sensitivity to bright light (photophobia)
   Many patients feel discomfort or pain in bright sunlight or near strong lamps. When the cornea is swollen or has tiny surface blisters, bright light becomes very annoying and can make the eyes water. EyeWiki+2Cleveland Clinic+2

8. Eye discomfort or foreign-body sensation
   The cornea may feel rough or irritated, like there is sand in the eye. This happens when the outer surface is uneven or when small fluid-filled bubbles (bullae) form and disturb the surface. EyeWiki+1

9. Eye pain, especially with ruptured bullae
   In advanced disease, large blisters can form on the surface of the cornea. When these blisters burst, they leave raw nerve endings exposed, which can be very painful and can make the eye water and close tightly. EyeWiki+2Wikipedia+2

10. Redness of the eye
    The eye may look red, especially during painful episodes or when the surface is very irritated. The redness comes from swollen, irritated tissues and increased blood flow in the white part of the eye. EyeWiki+1

11. Poor night vision
    Because the cornea is cloudy and light scatters more, night driving and seeing in dim light can become hard. People may avoid driving at night because oncoming headlights cause glare and halos that make it difficult to see the road. EyeWiki+2Cleveland Clinic+2

12. Difficulty reading or doing close work
    Small print or fine tasks, like sewing, become harder as blurriness and glare increase. Patients may need stronger light and more time to read, and they may still feel that the letters are not sharp. EyeWiki+1

13. Frequent changes in glasses prescription
    Because corneal swelling can change the focusing power of the eye, patients may be told that their glasses need frequent updates. Sometimes the vision does not improve much even with new lenses, which can be frustrating and confusing. EyeWiki+2ScienceDirect+2

14. Decreased corneal sensitivity
    Tests show that the cornea may become less sensitive to touch in long-standing disease. Patients may not always feel small injuries or dryness as clearly as a healthy eye would, which can delay noticing corneal surface problems. EyeWiki+2Lippincott Journals+2

15. Severe vision loss in advanced stages
    If many endothelial cells are lost and the cornea stays thick and scarred, vision can drop to very low levels. In these late stages, people may only see hand movements or light, and everyday activities become very difficult until surgery is done. EyeWiki+2NCBI+2

Diagnostic tests

Doctors use several tests to diagnose endothelial corneal dystrophy and to judge how severe it is. Many tests are done in the clinic using simple instruments, while others use special imaging machines. Some tests look directly at the cornea, and some rule out other causes of vision loss. EyeWiki+2Dove Medical Press+2

Physical examination tests

1. Detailed history and symptom review
   The eye doctor first asks about vision changes, morning blur, glare, pain, and family history of similar disease. A careful history helps suggest endothelial dystrophy and separate it from other causes of cloudy vision, such as cataract or retinal disease. EyeWiki+1

2. Visual acuity test with an eye chart
   The patient reads letters on a chart (for example a Snellen chart) at a fixed distance. This test measures how clearly the person can see and helps track changes over time as the disease progresses or after treatment. Cleveland Clinic+1

3. Slit-lamp biomicroscopy of the cornea
   The slit-lamp is a special microscope with a bright, thin beam of light. The doctor examines the cornea for central guttae, stromal haze, epithelial microcysts, and bullae. This exam is the main clinical way to diagnose Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy and to grade its severity. EyeWiki+2Dove Medical Press+2

4. Intraocular pressure measurement (tonometry)
   Measuring eye pressure helps detect glaucoma or ocular hypertension, which can worsen corneal swelling. High pressure also affects surgical planning and may influence how quickly endothelial failure leads to symptoms. arXiv+2MDPI+2

5. Red reflex and fundus check through the cornea
   The doctor looks for the red reflex and views the retina through the cornea using an ophthalmoscope. If the cornea is very cloudy, the reflex will be reduced and the back of the eye is hard to see, which indirectly shows advanced corneal edema. Wikipedia+1

Manual and functional tests

6. Refraction test (glasses prescription)
   Lenses of different powers are placed in front of the eyes to find the best correction. If vision stays blurred even with the best lenses, this suggests that the problem is not just refractive error but likely involves the cornea or retina. Cleveland Clinic+1

7. Pinhole test
   The pinhole occluder is a simple disk with small holes. When the patient looks through it, refractive errors are reduced. If vision does not improve much with the pinhole, it points to corneal or retinal disease rather than simple focusing problems. Wikipedia+1

8. Corneal sensitivity testing (esthesiometry)
   The doctor lightly touches the cornea with a fine filament or uses a dedicated esthesiometer to see how well the cornea feels touch. People with Fuchs dystrophy often have reduced corneal sensitivity, which supports the diagnosis and helps explain why some injuries may go unnoticed. Lippincott Journals+1

9. Schirmer’s test for tear production
   Small paper strips are placed inside the lower eyelid to measure how many tears are produced over a few minutes. This test helps rule out severe dry eye as the main cause of discomfort and blur, since dry eye can coexist with corneal dystrophy and worsen symptoms. Wikipedia+1

10. Glare and contrast sensitivity testing
    Special charts or devices are used to check how well the patient sees in the presence of bright lights and low contrast. Reduced contrast sensitivity and strong glare responses are common in endothelial corneal dystrophy, even when standard visual acuity is still fairly good. EyeWiki+2ScienceDirect+2

Laboratory and pathological tests

11. Basic blood tests for systemic disease
    Blood sugar, lipid levels, and other routine blood tests may be ordered to look for diabetes, vascular disease, or other systemic problems that can worsen endothelial health or influence surgical risk. While these tests do not diagnose the dystrophy directly, they help guide safe treatment. ScienceDirect+2GJCSRO+2

12. Genetic testing for FECD-related genes
    In some patients, especially those with strong family history or early onset, DNA testing is done to look for repeat expansions in TCF4 or mutations in COL8A2, SLC4A11, ZEB1, and related genes. Finding a known mutation can confirm the inherited nature of the disease and help with family counseling. MedlinePlus+2ScienceDirect+2

13. Corneal tissue histopathology (after transplant)
    When a diseased cornea is removed during transplant surgery, it is often sent to a pathology lab. Under the microscope, the pathologist sees thickened Descemet’s membrane, guttae, and loss of normal endothelial cells. This confirms the diagnosis and helps researchers understand disease mechanisms. Dove Medical Press+2EyeWiki+2

14. Immunohistochemistry and molecular studies (research use)
    In research settings, special stains and molecular tests are used on corneal tissue to look for oxidative stress markers, abnormal protein deposits, or changes in gene expression. These tests are not done in routine clinical care but provide deeper evidence about how the dystrophy develops at the cellular level. Dove Medical Press+1

Electrodiagnostic tests

15. Visual evoked potential (VEP)
    VEP measures the electrical response of the brain’s visual cortex after light or pattern stimulation. It helps doctors check the entire visual pathway from the eye to the brain. VEP is usually normal in pure corneal disease but may be used if the vision is worse than expected from corneal findings, to rule out optic nerve or brain problems. NCBI+2True North Neurology+2

16. Electroretinography (ERG)
    ERG measures the electrical responses of the retina’s rods and cones to light. In endothelial corneal dystrophy, ERG is typically normal, but it can be useful when doctors suspect an additional retinal disease that might also reduce vision. This helps separate corneal causes of blur from retinal causes. Wikipedia+2UCSF Health+2

Imaging tests

17. Specular microscopy of the corneal endothelium
    Specular microscopy takes high-magnification pictures of the endothelial cell layer. In Fuchs dystrophy, it shows guttae, irregular cell shapes, and low cell counts. This test gives an objective measurement of endothelial cell density and helps predict the risk of corneal failure or problems after surgery. EyeWiki+2Dove Medical Press+2

18. In vivo confocal microscopy
    Confocal microscopes can scan different layers of the cornea in living patients. In endothelial corneal dystrophy, they show detailed changes in endothelial cells, Descemet’s membrane, and even anterior layers of the cornea. This helps researchers and some specialists better understand disease stage. Dove Medical Press+2ResearchGate+2

19. Corneal pachymetry (thickness measurement)
    Pachymetry uses ultrasound or optical devices to measure corneal thickness. In endothelial dystrophy, the cornea often becomes thicker as fluid builds up. Tracking these thickness numbers over time helps monitor disease progression and decide when surgery may be needed. EyeWiki+2PMC+2

20. Anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT) and Scheimpflug tomography
    AS-OCT and Scheimpflug cameras create cross-section images and 3-D maps of the cornea. They show corneal thickness patterns, curvature changes, and the extent of edema. These images allow more precise grading of the disease and can help plan surgeries such as endothelial keratoplasty. SAGE Journals+3PubMed+3IOVS+3

Non-pharmacological treatments (therapies and other measures)

These measures do not rely on medicines. They aim to reduce corneal swelling, protect the cornea, and support overall eye health. They are usually used together with medical or surgical treatment, not instead of them.EyeWiki+1

1. Morning “drying” with warm air
   Many people with endothelial corneal dystrophy see worst vision on waking because the cornea swells overnight. Gently blowing warm (not hot) air from a hairdryer, held at arm’s length and pointed across the face with eyes closed, can speed evaporation of excess fluid from the cornea. This often clears vision faster in the morning. It must be done carefully to avoid heat injury and only as advised by an eye doctor.EyeWiki+1

2. Short, frequent breaks from screen use
   Long periods on phones or computers reduce blinking and can worsen surface dryness on top of corneal swelling. Following the “20-20-20 rule” (every 20 minutes look 20 feet away for 20 seconds) and remembering to blink fully helps keep the tear film more stable over the already stressed cornea, which may slightly improve comfort and vision.ScienceDirect+1

3. Protective glasses outdoors
   Wearing sunglasses with UV protection and wind shields helps reduce light sensitivity, glare, and mechanical stress on the corneal surface. Less UV and wind exposure may reduce irritation of the swollen cornea and make daily life more comfortable, especially in bright or windy environments.EyeWiki+1

4. Avoiding eye rubbing
   Rubbing the eyes presses directly on the cornea and can stress the already fragile endothelial cells. Over time, rubbing may worsen swelling, increase micro-damage, and raise the chance of needing surgery sooner. Using clean tissues, cool compresses, or artificial tears (if prescribed) instead of rubbing is safer for the cornea.aao.org+1

5. Humid, stable indoor air
   Very dry or rapidly changing indoor air can make the corneal surface more uncomfortable. Using a humidifier in air-conditioned or heated rooms and avoiding direct drafts from fans or vents helps keep the tear film and corneal surface more stable, supporting comfort in people with endothelial corneal dystrophy.PMC+1

6. Moisture chamber goggles at night
   Some patients feel better when they sleep in soft moisture-retaining goggles. These goggles reduce overnight evaporation and protect the surface from exposure. In mild disease, this may improve comfort; in more advanced disease, it mainly supports the surface while other treatments control edema.EyeWiki+1

7. Careful contact lens use (or avoidance)
   Hard or soft contact lenses can sometimes worsen corneal swelling or cause extra stress. In some cases, specialty lenses (like scleral lenses) may improve vision by creating a smooth optical surface over a bumpy cornea, but they must be fitted very carefully. Any contact lens plan should be supervised by a cornea specialist to avoid damage.EyeWiki+1

8. Treating dry eye disease
   Dry eye commonly co-exists with endothelial corneal dystrophy. Treating eyelid inflammation, improving meibomian gland function, and using prescribed lubricants helps stabilize the surface. A healthier tear film reduces scatter of light from the swollen cornea and can improve overall visual quality and comfort.EyeWiki+1

9. Controlling systemic diseases (especially diabetes)
   Diseases like diabetes and high blood pressure can harm small blood vessels and may be linked to poorer corneal endothelial health. Good blood sugar and blood-pressure control, guided by a primary doctor, may help protect the remaining endothelial cells and reduce complications after eye surgery.PMC+1

10. Smoking cessation
    Research suggests tobacco use can be associated with reduced corneal endothelial cell density and poorer corneal health in some groups. Quitting smoking helps overall eye health, lowers vascular risk, and may support the long-term survival of remaining corneal cells, especially in people with other risk factors.PMC+2Wiley Online Library+2

11. Careful driving and lighting adjustments
    Because glare and halos are common, using anti-glare coatings on glasses, avoiding night driving when possible, and improving indoor lighting (warm, even light, not harsh spotlights) can make daily tasks safer and more comfortable while the disease is being managed.EyeWiki+1

12. Regular eye pressure checks
    Even when pressure (intraocular pressure, IOP) is within “normal” range, higher IOP can stress damaged endothelial cells. Regular checks allow early treatment of even modest pressure elevations. Lowering IOP, when needed, may slow damage and improve the cornea’s ability to clear fluid.aao.org+1

13. Protecting the eye after surgery
    If you have cataract or corneal surgery, using shields at night, avoiding trauma, and following post-operative instructions closely protects the graft and remaining endothelium. Good protection reduces the risk of graft failure, infection, and scarring in eyes already weakened by dystrophy.aao.org+2University of Michigan Health+2

14. Weight, exercise, and vascular health
    Healthy weight, regular moderate exercise, and a heart-healthy lifestyle support blood flow to all tissues, including the eye. While this does not cure endothelial corneal dystrophy, it may reduce additional vascular risk factors that could harm the eye or increase surgical risk later in life.PMC+1

15. Using prescribed eye shields when sleeping
    Some people sleep with their eyes partially open, which can worsen surface dryness and discomfort over an already swollen cornea. Soft eye shields or taping as advised by a doctor can help keep the eyelids closed and protect the surface overnight.EyeWiki+1

16. Limiting unnecessary over-the-counter eye drops
    Many OTC drops, especially those that “get the red out,” contain vasoconstrictors or preservatives that may irritate the cornea if used often. Using these without guidance on a fragile cornea can worsen burning or dryness. It is safer to use only products recommended by an eye specialist.FDA Access Data+1

17. Scheduling tasks when vision is clearest
    Vision often improves as the day goes on, when corneal edema decreases. Planning detailed work, reading, or driving for the time of day when vision is best (usually later in the morning or afternoon) helps maintain independence and reduces frustration.EyeWiki+1

18. Psychological and social support
    Living with a slowly progressive eye disease can cause anxiety or low mood. Talking with family, counselors, or support groups for people with corneal diseases helps people cope better, adhere to treatment, and plan for the future, including possible surgery.aao.org+1

19. Regular follow-up with a cornea specialist
    Because endothelial corneal dystrophy progresses at different speeds in different people, regular check-ups (often yearly or more) are vital. The specialist can track corneal thickness, cell loss, and vision, and advise when to step up treatment or consider surgery.aao.org+1

20. Education about the disease
    Understanding that endothelial corneal dystrophy is chronic, usually genetic, and often treatable with modern surgery helps patients make calm, informed decisions. Education reduces fear, supports adherence to drops and non-drug measures, and encourages early reporting of warning symptoms.EyeWiki+1

Drug treatments

Important: No medicine currently cures endothelial corneal dystrophy. Most drugs below are used to reduce corneal edema, manage eye pressure, control inflammation, or protect the eye, often in an off-label way guided by a specialist. FDA labels mainly cover safety and approved indications (such as glaucoma), not specifically this dystrophy.FDA Access Data+3EyeWiki+3aao.org+3

1. Hypertonic sodium chloride 5% drops
   These strong salt eye drops (for example, 5% sodium chloride) pull excess water out of the cornea by osmosis. They are commonly used in Fuchs’ endothelial dystrophy to reduce morning edema and improve vision. Typical dosing is one drop in the affected eye(s) four to six times daily or as prescribed. Side effects can include stinging and temporary redness. Sodium chloride 2–5% solutions are recognized as ophthalmic hypertonicity agents in FDA OTC monographs.FDA Access Data+2EyeWiki+2

2. Hypertonic sodium chloride 5% ointment (night use)
   Thicker 5% sodium chloride ointment stays on the eye longer, especially overnight. A small amount is placed inside the lower eyelid at bedtime to reduce overnight swelling and morning blurred vision. It can cause temporary blurred vision, mild irritation, or sticky eyelids. As with hypertonic drops, its salt content draws fluid out of the cornea and is listed in FDA hypertonic ophthalmic product regulations.FDA Access Data+2AAO Journal+2

3. Lubricating artificial tears (carboxymethylcellulose or similar)
   Preservative-free artificial tears help coat the cornea, reduce friction from blinking, and improve comfort and visual quality. They can be used many times a day as directed. While they don’t directly treat endothelial dysfunction, they support the surface, which is often stressed by swelling. Many lubricants fall under FDA over-the-counter ophthalmic monographs for dry eye relief.FDA Access Data+2EyeWiki+2

4. Acetazolamide tablets (systemic carbonic anhydrase inhibitor)
   Acetazolamide is an oral carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that reduces fluid production inside the eye and can be used short-term to decrease corneal edema in severe cases or before surgery. Common doses for ocular use (for other conditions) are 250–500 mg up to 2–4 times daily, but dosing and duration must be individualized. Side effects include tingling, fatigue, kidney stones, electrolyte imbalance, and rare severe reactions.FDA Access Data+2FDA Access Data+2

5. Topical dorzolamide 2% (TRUSOPT and generics)
   Dorzolamide is a topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitor used mainly to lower intraocular pressure in glaucoma. In eyes with endothelial problems, lowering pressure may reduce stress on the cornea and help fluid clear. Usual labeled dosing is one drop three times daily. Possible side effects include burning, bitter taste, and rare allergic reactions.FDA Access Data+2FDA Access Data+2

6. Topical timolol (beta-blocker drops or gel)
   Timolol maleate drops (e.g., TIMOPTIC, Timolol GFS, ISTALOL) lower eye pressure by reducing fluid production in the eye. For glaucoma, typical dosing is one drop once or twice daily, but in corneal dystrophy the goal is pressure reduction, not direct endothelial treatment. Side effects can include slow heart rate, breathing problems in asthma, and local irritation, so it must be used with caution.FDA Access Data+3FDA Access Data+3FDA Access Data+3

7. Combination dorzolamide–timolol drops (COSOPT and generics)
   This combination product contains both dorzolamide and timolol to lower eye pressure more strongly. Labeled dosing is usually one drop twice daily. It can be useful when pressure is high and multiple drops are needed. Side effects combine those of both drugs, so careful medical monitoring is essential.FDA Access Data+1

8. Latanoprost drops (e.g., XALATAN, IYUZEH, XELPROS)
   Latanoprost is a prostaglandin analog that increases fluid outflow from the eye and lowers intraocular pressure. It is commonly dosed once nightly. In endothelial corneal dystrophy, it may be used when co-existing glaucoma or ocular hypertension threatens optic nerve health. Side effects include eye redness, eyelash growth, and gradual darkening of iris color.FDA Access Data+3FDA Access Data+3FDA Access Data+3

9. Netarsudil 0.02% (RHOPRESSA and generics)
   Netarsudil is a Rho kinase inhibitor approved to reduce elevated eye pressure in open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. It also affects the trabecular meshwork and episcleral venous pressure. Small clinical studies in Fuchs dystrophy suggest that it can reduce corneal edema and improve vision in some patients, but this is off-label and still being studied. Common side effects include conjunctival redness and corneal epithelial changes.Dove Medical Press+5FDA Access Data+5FDA Access Data+5

10. Topical corticosteroids (e.g., prednisolone acetate)
    Steroid eye drops are not used to treat the dystrophy directly, but they are essential after corneal surgery to prevent rejection of the donor graft and control inflammation. They are usually started frequently and then slowly reduced. Long-term or high-dose use can raise eye pressure and increase cataract risk, so they must be monitored.PMC+2University of Michigan Health+2

11. Topical antibiotics (e.g., moxifloxacin) after surgery
    After endothelial keratoplasty or other corneal surgery, short-term antibiotic drops protect against infection while the wound heals. They are usually used several times a day for about a week, then stopped. Side effects can include temporary irritation or rare allergy. These drops protect the eye but do not change the underlying dystrophy.PMC+2University of Michigan Health+2

12. Cycloplegic drops (e.g., cyclopentolate, atropine) for pain
    When corneal blisters (bullae) form and burst, the eye can be very painful. Cycloplegic drops temporarily relax the ciliary muscle and iris, reducing pain from spasm and light sensitivity. They may cause blurred near vision and pupil dilation, so they are usually used short-term and under close supervision.aao.org+1

13. Topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drops (NSAIDs)
    NSAID drops such as ketorolac may be used briefly after surgery to control pain and inflammation. They are not first-line for the dystrophy itself because overuse can harm the corneal surface, especially when the epithelium is already fragile. Any use should be short and supervised.aao.org+1

14. Antiglaucoma prostaglandin analogs other than latanoprost (e.g., bimatoprost, travoprost)
    Like latanoprost, these drugs lower eye pressure by increasing fluid outflow. They are used mainly when glaucoma co-exists with endothelial disease. While they do not repair the endothelium, controlling pressure helps protect overall eye health. Side effects are similar to latanoprost, including redness and iris color change.FDA Access Data+2FDA Access Data+2

15. Hyperosmotic systemic agents (e.g., intravenous mannitol in acute settings)
    In rare, severe cases of corneal edema with dangerously high eye pressure (for example, after complicated surgery), IV mannitol may be used in the hospital to rapidly pull fluid out of the eye and body. This is an emergency supportive measure, not routine treatment for endothelial dystrophy, and is given under close monitoring.aao.org+1

16. Antibiotic–steroid combination drops (short term after surgery)
    Combined products can simplify post-operative regimens by treating inflammation and reducing infection risk at the same time. They are generally used only for a short course because long-term steroids can cause side effects. Their role is supportive after transplant, not disease-modifying for the dystrophy.PMC+2University of Michigan Health+2

17. Hypertonic saline soaked bandage contact lens (procedure plus drug)
    Sometimes doctors combine a bandage contact lens with hypertonic saline to protect the surface and draw out fluid. This can relieve pain from bullae and improve vision temporarily. Because there is a small risk of infection, this approach needs careful follow-up and good hygiene.AAO Journal+1

18. Antiviral drops (when other corneal disease is suspected)
    If there is any concern about herpes or other viral infection contributing to corneal damage, antiviral eye drops or tablets may be added. Treating infection is important before considering surgery, because viral disease can harm a transplant. These medicines do not treat the dystrophy itself but protect the eye from additional damage.aao.org+1

19. Topical brimonidine or other alpha-agonists (for IOP control)
    Alpha-agonist drops can lower intraocular pressure and may be added if the pressure remains high despite other drugs. Side effects may include allergic reactions and dry mouth or fatigue. As with other glaucoma medicines, they treat pressure, not the dystrophy, but pressure control can protect the eye and grafts.aao.org+2FDA Access Data+2

20. Short-term analgesics (pain relief tablets)
    Over-the-counter pain relievers such as acetaminophen or, if appropriate, NSAIDs may be used for discomfort from corneal blisters or after surgery, under medical guidance. They help people tolerate symptoms while other treatments address corneal swelling and healing.aao.org+1

Dietary molecular supplements

These supplements do not cure endothelial corneal dystrophy, but they may support general eye and body health by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Always discuss supplements with a doctor, especially if you take other medicines.Valley Eyecare+3EyeWiki+3PMC+3

1. Omega-3 fatty acids (DHA/EPA)
   Omega-3 fats from fish oil or algae supports the tear film, reduce inflammation, and may help overall ocular surface comfort. Typical adult doses in eye-health studies are around 500–1000 mg of combined EPA/DHA daily, though exact dosing should be individualized. Mechanistically, omega-3s become part of cell membranes and modulate inflammatory signaling, which may indirectly help a stressed cornea feel more comfortable.ResearchGate+2PMC+2

2. Lutein and zeaxanthin
   These carotenoids concentrate in the retina but also reflect overall antioxidant intake. Doses of 10–20 mg lutein plus 2 mg zeaxanthin daily have been used in macular degeneration studies. They help neutralize free radicals produced by light exposure, reducing oxidative stress and potentially supporting long-term eye health alongside corneal disease.EyeWiki+2PMC+2

3. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
   Vitamin C is a water-soluble antioxidant found in the aqueous humor (the fluid in front of the eye). Typical supplemental doses range from 250–500 mg daily, not exceeding safe limits. It supports collagen and extracellular matrix health and helps mop up free radicals, which may be helpful as the cornea faces chronic stress.EyeWiki+2PMC+2

4. Vitamin E
   Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that helps protect cell membranes from oxidative damage. Doses used for general antioxidant support are often 100–400 IU daily, but high doses are not suitable for everyone, especially people on blood thinners. It may help stabilize cell membranes, including in ocular tissues.PMC+2JPTCP+2

5. Zinc
   Zinc is a cofactor in many enzymes involved in antioxidant defense and tissue repair. In eye-health formulas, doses around 20–40 mg elemental zinc per day have been studied. Adequate zinc supports immune function and may aid corneal healing, but excess can cause digestive upset or interfere with copper balance.PMC+1

6. Vitamin A (and beta-carotene)
   Vitamin A is vital for the ocular surface and normal tear production. It is usually obtained from diet (liver, eggs, orange vegetables) or low-dose supplements. High doses can be toxic, so it should not be self-prescribed in large amounts. Adequate vitamin A supports epithelial health, which is important when the cornea is swollen and fragile.PMC+2American Optometric Association+2

7. Vitamin D
   Vitamin D plays roles in immune regulation and may have indirect benefits for ocular surface inflammation. Typical supplemental doses range from 600–2000 IU per day, depending on blood levels and medical advice. Good vitamin D status helps overall health and may support healing after eye surgery.PMC+1

8. B-complex vitamins
   B vitamins support nerve health, energy metabolism, and cell repair. Low doses in balanced B-complex supplements are sometimes used in people with nerve-related eye symptoms or systemic disease. They do not directly affect the corneal endothelium but may support general tissue repair and wellbeing, which indirectly helps coping with chronic eye disease.PMC+1

9. Taurine
   Taurine is an amino acid abundant in retinal tissue and functions as an osmoregulator. Though data are stronger for retina than cornea, normal taurine status may help cells handle fluid balance and oxidative stress. Supplements vary in dose (commonly 500–1000 mg/day), but evidence in corneal dystrophy is limited, so it should be used cautiously.EyeWiki+1

10. Multinutrient “eye formulas” (AREDS-style)
    Some people take comprehensive eye-health formulas combining antioxidants, carotenoids, zinc, and copper. These are mainly studied for macular degeneration, not corneal dystrophy, but they indicate that balanced antioxidant support can be helpful for aging eyes in general. Any such product should be checked with a doctor to avoid overdosing vitamins.PMC+2ScienceDirect+2

Immunity-booster and regenerative / stem-cell–related approaches

At present, there are no widely approved systemic “immunity booster” or stem-cell drugs specifically for endothelial corneal dystrophy. However, several regenerative strategies are being researched, mostly in clinical trials and highly specialized centers.PMC+2modernod.com+2

1. Cultured human corneal endothelial cell injection
   Researchers are growing donor endothelial cells in the lab and injecting them into the front of the eye after removing diseased cells. The cells are encouraged to attach and form a new layer. Doses and protocols are still being studied, and this therapy is only available in trials. It aims to regenerate the endothelium without a full-thickness transplant.modernod.com+1

2. Rho-kinase inhibitor–assisted cell therapy
   Combining cultured endothelial cells with Rho-kinase inhibitors like netarsudil or related drugs may help transplanted cells spread and stick better. Trials suggest improved corneal clarity in some patients, but exact eye-drop schedules and cell doses are still experimental. This approach tries to support natural repair rather than replacing the whole cornea.PubMed+2Dove Medical Press+2

3. Descemetorhexis without graft plus Rho-kinase inhibitor (DWEK/DSO)
   In selected patients, surgeons remove the central diseased Descemet membrane and endothelium but do not implant donor tissue. Instead, they use ROCK inhibitors to encourage remaining peripheral cells to migrate and cover the center. This is still evolving, and not all patients are suitable. It may offer a more “self-healing” option in carefully chosen cases.aao.org+2modernod.com+2

4. Gene-targeted therapies (early research)
   Genetic studies have found mutations (such as in COL8A2 and other genes) linked to Fuchs dystrophy. Experimental gene therapies aim to correct or silence harmful genes in the corneal endothelium. These treatments remain in preclinical or very early clinical stages, with no standard doses or protocols yet.EyeWiki+1

5. Systemic immune-modulating support for surgery
   In people with autoimmune disease or high rejection risk, doctors may adjust systemic immune-modulating drugs (like steroids or other agents) around the time of corneal transplant to support graft survival. The drug, dose, and timing are customized, aiming to balance infection risk with protection against rejection.aao.org+2modernod.com+2

6. General lifestyle-based “immune support”
   Adequate sleep, balanced diet, stress management, and vaccination against systemic infections do not directly regenerate the cornea, but they support the body’s ability to handle surgery and recover from infections. This “whole-body” immune support is an important background for any advanced eye treatment.PMC+2JPTCP+2

Surgical treatments (why they are done)

1. Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK)
   DMEK replaces only the thin diseased Descemet membrane and endothelium with a matching layer from a donor cornea. The surgeon strips the patient’s diseased tissue and injects a small scroll of donor tissue into the eye, then unfolds and positions it with an air or gas bubble. DMEK often gives the best visual quality and fastest recovery and is considered a gold standard for many patients with Fuchs dystrophy.ResearchGate+3PMC+3University of Michigan Health+3

2. Descemet stripping automated endothelial keratoplasty (DSAEK/DSEK)
   In DSAEK, the surgeon replaces the patient’s endothelium and Descemet membrane with a slightly thicker slice of donor tissue that also includes a thin layer of stroma. It is technically a bit easier than DMEK and is often used in more complex eyes. It improves corneal clarity and vision by providing a new layer of healthy endothelial cells.MedPark Hospital+2modernod.com+2

3. Penetrating keratoplasty (full-thickness transplant)
   In advanced disease with deep scarring or other corneal problems, a full-thickness corneal transplant may still be needed. The surgeon removes a circular piece of the patient’s entire cornea and replaces it with a clear donor disc, securing it with fine stitches. Recovery is longer and there is more astigmatism, but it can restore vision when other options are not suitable.aao.org+1

4. Combined cataract surgery with endothelial keratoplasty (“triple procedure”)
   Many patients with Fuchs dystrophy also have cataracts. To avoid two separate surgeries, doctors sometimes remove the cataract, implant an intraocular lens, and perform DMEK or DSAEK in the same operation. This can shorten overall recovery time and reduce anesthesia risk. The main goal is to restore clarity both in the lens and the cornea in a single procedure.aao.org+2University of Michigan Health+2

5. Bullous keratopathy–relief procedures
   In painful late-stage disease with many corneal blisters, procedures like superficial keratectomy (removing damaged surface layers) or amniotic membrane transplantation may be used as temporary measures to relieve pain while waiting for transplant. These do not fix the endothelium but can make the eye more comfortable.aao.org+1

Prevention and risk-reduction tips

Endothelial corneal dystrophy itself is usually genetic and cannot be fully prevented, but you can reduce extra stress on the cornea and lower complications:

1. Do not rub your eyes.aao.org+1

2. Avoid smoking and second-hand smoke.PMC+2Wiley Online Library+2

3. Wear UV-blocking sunglasses in bright sunlight.EyeWiki+1

4. Control diabetes, blood pressure, and cholesterol with medical guidance.PMC+1

5. Keep regular check-ups with an eye specialist.aao.org+1

6. Use only prescribed or recommended eye drops; avoid frequent “red-eye” OTC drops.FDA Access Data+1

7. Protect your eyes from injury at work or during sports.aao.org+1

8. Maintain a balanced, eye-friendly diet rich in leafy greens and fish.PMC+2American Optometric Association+2

9. Manage screen time and take blinking breaks to protect the surface.ScienceDirect+1

10. Follow post-operative instructions very carefully if you have had eye surgery.University of Michigan Health+1

When to see a doctor

You should see an eye doctor (ideally a cornea specialist) if you notice:

• Gradually worsening blurred vision, especially on waking.

• New glare, halos around lights, or trouble driving at night.

• Eye pain, redness, or sudden change in vision.

• A feeling of “blisters” or roughness on the eye surface.

• No improvement or worsening despite using prescribed drops.

• New symptoms after cataract or corneal surgery, such as severe pain, vision loss, or discharge.

Early review allows your doctor to adjust drops, consider procedures, and plan surgery before vision loss becomes permanent.EyeWiki+2aao.org+2

What to eat and what to avoid

1. Eat: Dark leafy greens (spinach, kale, collards) – rich in lutein and zeaxanthin, which support eye tissues and reduce oxidative stress.EyeWiki+2PMC+2

2. Eat: Fatty fish (salmon, sardines, mackerel) – provide omega-3 fats that support tear quality and reduce inflammation.ResearchGate+2PMC+2

3. Eat: Colorful fruits and vegetables (carrots, peppers, berries, citrus) – supply vitamins A and C and many antioxidants helpful for overall eye health.PMC+1

4. Eat: Nuts and seeds (walnuts, almonds, flaxseed, chia) – offer healthy fats and vitamin E, supporting cell membranes and reducing inflammation.PMC+2Valley Eyecare+2

5. Eat: Whole grains and legumes – help maintain stable blood sugar, which is important if you have diabetes and want to protect the cornea and retina.PMC+1

6. Avoid or limit: Highly processed foods very high in sugar or white flour, which can worsen blood sugar swings and vascular risk.PMC+1

7. Avoid or limit: Deep-fried and trans-fat–rich snacks, which promote inflammation and cardiovascular disease, indirectly affecting eye health.PMC+1

8. Avoid or limit: Excess alcohol, which can dehydrate the body and affect general health and nutrient levels.PMC+1

9. Avoid: Smoking and vaping nicotine products, which are linked to vascular damage and poorer corneal endothelial cell health in some studies.PMC+2Wiley Online Library+2

10. Avoid unsupervised mega-doses of vitamins or “miracle” eye supplements, which can cause side effects or drug interactions without proven benefit for this dystrophy.PMC+1

Frequently asked questions (FAQs)

1. Is endothelial corneal dystrophy the same as Fuchs dystrophy?
   Most of the time, yes. Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy is the most common form and is what doctors usually mean when they say “endothelial corneal dystrophy.”EyeWiki+1

2. Can endothelial corneal dystrophy be cured with eye drops?
   No. Drops like hypertonic saline, glaucoma medicines, and lubricants can reduce swelling and improve comfort, but they cannot replace lost endothelial cells. Surgery is the only way to truly restore a healthy endothelial layer.modernod.com+3EyeWiki+3AAO Journal+3

3. Will everyone with this disease need surgery?
   Not everyone. Some people have mild disease that never seriously affects vision. Others slowly progress and eventually need DMEK, DSAEK, or other graft surgery when glasses and drops are no longer enough.ResearchGate+3EyeWiki+3aao.org+3

4. Is surgery for Fuchs dystrophy successful?
   Yes, modern endothelial keratoplasty (especially DMEK) has high success rates and can give very good vision, often better than older full-thickness transplants, when performed by experienced surgeons.ResearchGate+3PMC+3University of Michigan Health+3

5. How long does recovery take after DMEK or DSAEK?
   Many people notice clearer vision within weeks, but full healing and stabilization can take several months. You will usually need regular follow-up visits and long-term steroid drops to protect the graft.PMC+2University of Michigan Health+2

6. Can I wear contact lenses if I have endothelial corneal dystrophy?
   Sometimes, yes, but it depends on corneal thickness and surface health. Special scleral lenses may help vision in some cases, but any lens use should be closely supervised by a cornea specialist to avoid worsening swelling.EyeWiki+1

7. Does cataract surgery make endothelial corneal dystrophy worse?
   Any intraocular surgery can stress the endothelium. In people with Fuchs dystrophy, surgeons adjust their technique and sometimes combine cataract removal with DMEK or DSAEK to protect or replace the cells at the same time.aao.org+2University of Michigan Health+2

8. Can vitamins or diet reverse this disease?
   No. Healthy diet and supplements can support general eye health, but they cannot regrow endothelial cells or reverse the dystrophy. They are helpful as part of an overall health plan, not as a cure.PMC+2JPTCP+2

9. Is endothelial corneal dystrophy hereditary?
   Yes, many cases are inherited, often in an autosomal dominant pattern, meaning it can run in families. However, severity and age of onset can vary widely, even within the same family.EyeWiki+1

10. At what age does it usually start?
    Microscopic changes can begin in middle age, but many people do not notice symptoms until their 50s, 60s, or later. Some early-onset genetic forms appear younger, but these are less common.EyeWiki+1

11. Can I prevent my children from getting it?
    You cannot change the genes, but early eye checks for family members can detect changes before symptoms appear. Healthy lifestyle, no smoking, and good medical care all help protect their overall eye health.EyeWiki+2PMC+2

12. Does using hypertonic saline for a long time damage the eye?
    Hypertonic saline drops and ointments are generally safe when used as directed, but they can cause surface irritation and should be reviewed regularly by a doctor. If stinging becomes severe or vision worsens, the regimen may need adjustment.FDA Access Data+2AAO Journal+2

13. Is netarsudil officially approved for endothelial corneal dystrophy?
    No. Netarsudil is FDA-approved to lower eye pressure in glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Its use to reduce corneal edema in Fuchs dystrophy is “off-label” and based on small clinical studies and case reports.Ajo+4FDA Access Data+4FDA Access Data+4

14. Can the disease come back after transplant?
    The original genetic problem is in the patient’s body, but the donor cornea has healthy endothelial cells from another person. Recurrence in the graft is uncommon in the short to medium term, but long-term graft failure from other causes can happen, so lifelong monitoring is needed.PMC+2University of Michigan Health+2

15. Is it safe to travel or fly with endothelial corneal dystrophy?
    Yes, most people can travel safely. If you have an air or gas bubble after DMEK or DSAEK, you must follow your surgeon’s specific rules about flying or high altitude until the bubble is absorbed. Always carry your eye drops and a summary of your condition when traveling.PMC+2University of Michigan Health+2

Disclaimer: Each person’s journey is unique, treatment plan, life style, food habit, hormonal condition, immune system, chronic disease condition, geological location, weather and previous medical  history is also unique. So always seek the best advice from a qualified medical professional or health care provider before trying any treatments to ensure to find out the best plan for you. This guide is for general information and educational purposes only. Regular check-ups and awareness can help to manage and prevent complications associated with these diseases conditions. If you or someone are suffering from this disease condition bookmark this website or share with someone who might find it useful! Boost your knowledge and stay ahead in your health journey. We always try to ensure that the content is regularly updated to reflect the latest medical research and treatment options. Thank you for giving your valuable time to read the article.

The article is written by Team RxHarun and reviewed by the Rx Editorial Board Members

Last Updated: December 21, 2025.

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