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Low pain: Back pain means pain in the spine, muscles, discs, joints, or nerves of the back. সহজ বাংলা: পিঠ/কোমরের ব্যথা।" data-rx-term="back pain" data-rx-definition="Back pain means pain in the spine, muscles, discs, joints, or nerves of the back. সহজ বাংলা: পিঠ/কোমরের ব্যথা।">back pain is an extremely common problem that is often poorly managed. Back pain is a particular challenge because it is so common, demanding of medical resources and a major cause of physical, psychological and social disability. Most back pain is simple and self-limiting but it is important to recognise that which is not.
Causes
In older age groups pain traveling along the sciatic nerve, often from lower back to leg. সহজ বাংলা: কোমর থেকে পায়ে নামা নার্ভের ব্যথা।" data-rx-term="sciatica" data-rx-definition="Sciatica means pain traveling along the sciatic nerve, often from lower back to leg. সহজ বাংলা: কোমর থেকে পায়ে নামা নার্ভের ব্যথা।">sciatica most commonly occurs as the result of conditions caused by spinal degeneration, such as spinal stenosis. This is where the pathways through which the sciatic nerve travels are narrowed. Again, this causes compression and/or irritation of the sciatic nerve.
The sciatic nerve is the largest and longest nerve in the body. It originates in the lower spine, branches into the pelvis, then travels through the buttocks, down the back of the legs and branches into the lower legs and feet. Sciatic pain occurs when there is pressure on, or damage to, the sciatic nerve.
The most common cause of pain traveling along the sciatic nerve, often from lower back to leg. সহজ বাংলা: কোমর থেকে পায়ে নামা নার্ভের ব্যথা।" data-rx-term="sciatica" data-rx-definition="Sciatica means pain traveling along the sciatic nerve, often from lower back to leg. সহজ বাংলা: কোমর থেকে পায়ে নামা নার্ভের ব্যথা।">sciatica is disc prolapse (also known as disc herniation or slipped disc). This occurs when one of the soft, gel-filled discs between the vertebrae of the spine bulges or ruptures, compressing and/or irritating the sciatic nerve.
Muscle spasms can also cause pain traveling along the sciatic nerve, often from lower back to leg. সহজ বাংলা: কোমর থেকে পায়ে নামা নার্ভের ব্যথা।" data-rx-term="sciatica" data-rx-definition="Sciatica means pain traveling along the sciatic nerve, often from lower back to leg. সহজ বাংলা: কোমর থেকে পায়ে নামা নার্ভের ব্যথা।">sciatica by compressing the sciatic nerve as it travels through the muscles. One such condition is piriformis syndrome, where the piriformis muscle irritates the sciatic nerve. Other less common causes of sciatica include:
• Infection
• Tumours
Factors that increase the likelihood of developing pain traveling along the sciatic nerve, often from lower back to leg. সহজ বাংলা: কোমর থেকে পায়ে নামা নার্ভের ব্যথা।" data-rx-term="sciatica" data-rx-definition="Sciatica means pain traveling along the sciatic nerve, often from lower back to leg. সহজ বাংলা: কোমর থেকে পায়ে নামা নার্ভের ব্যথা।">sciatica include:
• Pregnancy
• Being overweight
• Smoking.
Essentially. any injury or process which causes compression of the sciatic nerve can cause sciatic pain. In many cases however, no specific cause for the sciatic pain can be identified.
Signs and symptoms
The pain caused by sciatica can range from being mild to being very severe. It can occur suddenly or have a gradual onset. Sciatic pain is commonly described as a cramp-like pain that can be burning or sharp in nature. It may be associated with sensations such as pins and needles, tingling, numbness and weakness.
Sciatic pain is typically felt in the lower back and hip and radiates down the back of one leg. The characteristic that distinguishes it from other types of back pain is that the pain travels below the knee. The pain may be aggravated by specific actions, such as sneezing, coughing, lifting or sitting.
Pain and symptoms are usually most severe in the early stages of the condition, when compression and infection, or irritation, often causing pain, swelling, heat, or redness. সহজ বাংলা: শরীরের প্রদাহ; ব্যথা, ফোলা বা লালভাব হতে পারে।" data-rx-term="inflammation" data-rx-definition="Inflammation is the body’s response to injury, infection, or irritation, often causing pain, swelling, heat, or redness. সহজ বাংলা: শরীরের প্রদাহ; ব্যথা, ফোলা বা লালভাব হতে পারে।">inflammation of the sciatic nerve are at their greatest. It is common for the pain to gradually reduce after this time until it resolves completely – usually within four to eight weeks.
In rare cases compression of the sciatic nerve can be so severe that there is progressive weakness in the legs and/or loss of bowel and bladder function. If these symptoms are experienced, medical attention should be sought immediately as they can signal severe nerve damage.
The aims of pain: Back pain means pain in the spine, muscles, discs, joints, or nerves of the back. সহজ বাংলা: পিঠ/কোমরের ব্যথা।" data-rx-term="back pain" data-rx-definition="Back pain means pain in the spine, muscles, discs, joints, or nerves of the back. সহজ বাংলা: পিঠ/কোমরের ব্যথা।">back pain assessment are:[1][2]
• To recognise serious pathology
• To relieve pain
• To improve function
To recognise and assess level of disability
• To identify barriers to recovery
• To prevent recurrence or persistence of symptoms
• Add notes to any clinical page and create a reflective diary
• Automatically track and log every page you have viewed
• Print and export a summary to use in your appraisal
Definitions of pain: Back pain means pain in the spine, muscles, discs, joints, or nerves of the back. সহজ বাংলা: পিঠ/কোমরের ব্যথা।" data-rx-term="back pain" data-rx-definition="Back pain means pain in the spine, muscles, discs, joints, or nerves of the back. সহজ বাংলা: পিঠ/কোমরের ব্যথা।">back pain
• Most backache (85-90%) will be so-called simple low back pain (or ‘mechanical low back pain’) in which the symptoms by definition cannot be ascribed to a particular pathology (infection, tumour, fracture risk. সহজ বাংলা: হাড় দুর্বল হয়ে ভাঙার ঝুঁকি বেশি।" data-rx-term="osteoporosis" data-rx-definition="Osteoporosis means weak, fragile bones with higher fracture risk. সহজ বাংলা: হাড় দুর্বল হয়ে ভাঙার ঝুঁকি বেশি।">osteoporosis, fracture, radicular syndrome, cauda equina syndrome (CES)). Simple low backache is also called uncomplicated or nonspecific low back pain and will vary with posture, activity, time and treatment.
• Radicular (or nerve root pain) may occur with low back pain. Sciatica is a lay term for pain extending into the leg (buttock, thigh, calf or heel).
• The classification into acute (less than 6 weeks), subacute (6-12 weeks) and chronic (more than 12 weeks) has been used in research but is less useful clinically because of the variable and recurrent nature of symptoms.
• Recurrent low back pain has been defined as a new episode of pain after a symptom-free period of 6 months.[2]
Epidemiology:
• Back pain is extremely common. 60-80% of people in the UK report back pain at some time in their lives.[1]
• Low back pain has an estimated lifetime prevalence of 84% worldwide. The worldwide prevalence of chronic low back pain is about 23%.[3]
• Simple back pain tends to affect those between 30 and 60 years of age, starting between 30 and 50. First onset outside this range should arouse suspicion of a sinister cause.
• Back pain is second only to the common cold as a cause of lost days at work. In 2005 the Trades Union Congress (TUC) estimated that 4.9 million working days per year are lost due to back pain.[4] Research by the British Chiropractic Association found that 48% of people in Britain suffer from back or neck pain at any one time, possibly associated with spending an increasing amount of time seated at office desks.[5]
• Highly demanding jobs, prolonged standing and awkward lifting are the most consistent factors predisposing to low back pain.[6] A systematic review did not identify occupational carrying as an independent risk factor.[7] Psychosocial work-related stress is an associated factor.[8] Genetics may play a part.[3] Smoking and obesity increase risk.[9]
Presentation:
History should include:
• Establishing when the pain started.
• Confirming whether pain was sudden or gradual in onset.
• Identifying the location of the pain.
• Enquiring whether there is pain radiation to anywhere else.
• Establishing whether there are aggravating or relieving factors.
• Confirming whether the patient has had this problem previously.
• Noting the patient’s occupation, what it involves and hobbies or sport.
• Asking the patient to confirm what they think caused the pain.
• Noting past medical history. Steroid use predisposes to osteoporosis. Establish whether there has been malignancy that metastasises to bone (lung, breast, prostate, thyroid, kidney) or myeloma.
• Asking the patient to confirm how they have been managing the condition. This includes analgesics taken, whether they have been adequate and the patient’s attitude to the condition
•
•
•
•
• .
Red flags from history
Red flags for possible serious spinal pathology from the history are:[1][2]
• Recent violent trauma (such as a vehicle accident or a fall from a height)
• Minor trauma, or even just strenuous lifting, in people with osteoporosis
• Age at onset less than 20 or over 50 years (new back pain)
• History of
•
•
• :
• Cancer
• Drug abuse
• HIV
• Immunosuppression
• Prolonged use of corticosteroids
• Constitutional symptoms – eg, fever, chills, unexplained weight loss
• Recent bacterial infection – eg, urinary tract infection
• Pain that is:
• Worse when supine
• Severe at nighttime
• Thoracic
• Constant and progressive
• Non-mechanical without relief from bed rest or postural modification
• Unchanged despite treatment for 2-4 weeks
• Accompanied by severe morning stiffness (rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis)
• Severe and leaves patients unable to walk or self-care
• Accompanied by saddle anaesthesia or recent onset of difficulty with bladder or bowels
Examination
This is described in more detail in the separate article Examination of the Spine.
• A brief examination for acute back pain is recommended with the patient undressed, revealing the spine and standing.
• The brief examination should incorporate: inspection, palpation, brief neurological examination and an assessment of function.
• More detailed neurological examination will be necessary if the history suggests any red flags – eg, confirming saddle anaesthesia and diminished anal tone if CES is suspected.
• Passive straight leg raising is often used to assist diagnosis of nerve root pain. A Cochrane review of 16 cohort studies found that it was highly sensitive but specificity varied widely.
Red flags from examination:
• Structural deformity
• Severe or progressive neurological deficit in the lower extremities
• Unexpected laxity of the anal sphincter
• Perianal/perineal sensory loss
• Major motor weakness: knee extension, ankle plantar eversion, foot dorsiflexion
CES should be suspected if there is:
• Bladder dysfunction (usually retention, sometimes overflow)
• Sphincter disturbance
• Saddle anaesthesia
• Lower limb weakness
• Gait disturbance
Differential diagnosis:
Red flags may suggest spinal fracture, cancer, infection or serious pathology associated with a prolapsed intervertebral disc.
Other causes of back pain include:
• Primary malignancy:
• Reticulo-endothelial system (myeloma is the most likely)
• Carcinoma of pancreas
• Osteosarcoma (this does not usually affect the spine)
• Secondary cancers are usually from:
• Bronchus
• Breast
• Prostate
• Thyroid
• Kidney
•
• Bone disorders including:
• Paget’s disease of bone (affects the pelvis in 72% of cases and the lumbar spine in 58%)
• Osteoporosis (leading to vertebral collapse)
• Spinal stenosis
•
• Inflammatory disease – for example:[1]
• Ankylosing spondylitis which tends to present:
• Slowly in men under the age of 40 years
• With a rigid back
• With aggravation by inactivity and relief with exercise
•
• Psoriatic arthritis (rash or a family history of psoriasis)
• Reiter’s syndrome (symptoms including urethritis)
• Arthritis associated with inflammatory bowel disease (usually arthritis is peripheral)
• Infection:
• Never forget tuberculosis (osteomyelitis can occur)
• HIV predisposes to infections (including tuberculosis)
• Renal tract infection (pyelonephritis can also cause referred back pain)
• Causes from outside the spinal column include:
• Dissecting aortic aneurysm
• A posterior duodenal ulcer presenting as back pain, which may be difficult to diagnose. If a gastric ulcer presents for the first time over the age of 40 years, malignancy needs to be excluded.
• Nephrolithiasis
• Pyelonephritis
Traditionally, factors suggesting malignancy have included age greater than or equal to 50 years, previous history of cancer, duration of pain greater than one month, failure to improve with conservative therapy, elevated ESR and anaemia.[11] However, a Cochrane review has sounded a note of caution with respect to interpreting individual ‘red flags’. Further research on the reliability of combinations of features are recommended
Investigations:
• Note: if the diagnosis would appear to be simple back pain then no investigation is required.
• If other diagnoses are entertained, appropriate investigations are in order, depending upon the suspicion.
• Examination of the Spine
• Spinal Disc Problems (including Red Flag Signs)
• Neurological Examination of the Lower Limbs
Diagnostic imaging
This is indicated only if serious or specific pathology is likely – eg, red flags:[
• Plain X-ray of the lumbar spine:
• Provides the same dose of radiation as around 120 chest X-rays and, in return, offers very limited information and rarely affects management.
• Should not be used routinely. One study found that in patients with no features of serious underlying disease, early radiology made no difference to the outcome.[15] Imaging may be appropriate in the following circumstances:
• If fracture is suspected, X-ray is of value.
• With metastatic carcinoma.Those from prostate are sclerotic, those from lung, thyroid and kidney are osteolytic and those from breast may be either. Lesions below 2 cm in diameter may not be seen on plain X-ray but a scintillation scan with technetium 99m Tc is much more sensitive.
• Collapse from osteoporosis or myeloma may be seen.
• Paget’s disease of bone may be seen.
• CT scans often show stress fractures and spondylolisthesis best.
• MRI:
• Gives a good picture of soft tissues, including discs and anything impinging on nerves or the spinal cord.
• Disc lesions are best displayed by MRI scans. MRI is the most useful investigation in nerve root compression, discitis and suspected neoplastic disease.[
Blood and urine tests:
• FBC, ESR, CRP, urine analysis if cancer, infection or inflammation is suspected.[13][14]
• LFTs may be helpful. Alkaline phosphatase can be elevated in metastatic disease and Paget’s disease of bone.
• PSA will be raised particularly in carcinoma of the prostate.
• Urinary hydroxyproline will be markedly elevated (with increased bone turnover) in Paget’s disease of bone.
• Nephrolithiasis may produce red cells in the urine.
Other investigations:
A wide variety of further investigations may be required when other pathologies are suspected. For example:
• CXR may show primary or secondary carcinoma or pulmonary tuberculosis.
• Ultrasound will show renal stones and is the best way to visualise the pancreas. It can also give a good picture of an aneurysm allowing it to be measured accurately and to detect possible dissection.
• Endoscopy may confirm a posterior ulcer and allow tests for Helicobacter pyloriinfection or malignancy.
Management:
Decision Aids
In 1994 the Clinical Standards Advisory Group (CSAG) published a report that radically changed teaching and practice.[16]Until then, rest – perhaps with a board under the bed – was recommended for back pain. The new guidelines recommended active rehabilitation. The new principles of management involve keeping the patient active and giving analgesia to facilitate this. Now only in exceptional cases is rest allowed and then for no longer than 48 hours.
The basics of management
• Recognition of those causes of back pain that are a cause for concern and taking appropriate action (red flags)
• Planning a simple route for recovery with the patient, being positive and reassuring
• Recognising and addressing any factors that may mitigate against a swift recovery, including negative attitudes and even compensation neurosis (yellow flags)
• Relief of pain
• Addressing issues that may predispose to further episodes, including poor practice at work or poor ergonomics
Management of simple low back pain:
• Give information, reassurance and advice.
• DO NOT prescribe bed rest.
• Advise the patient to stay as active as possible.
• Prescribe regular pain relief (paracetamol, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) and consider a short course of muscle relaxants.
• Referral:
• Consider physical treatments, manipulation or multidisciplinary approaches if not resuming normal activities or if off work.[17]
• It is now recommended that such referrals be considered earlier than previously recommended – that is, ‘after a week or two’ (see ‘Referral guidance’ recommendations, below).
• Multidisciplinary approaches include, for example, cognitive behavioural programmes and back schools.[18]
• McKenzie exercises (a programme of exercises that patients can be taught to do at home) are popular.[19] One study found that the McKenzie method was slightly more effective in relieving disability compared to attendance at a back school but there was no difference in terms of pain relief.[20]
•
•
Management of suspected serious pathology or red flags:
If a red flag has shown, appropriate action must be taken. This will mean referral for investigation and for treatment. In the case of CES, for example, urgent referral to a neurosurgeon or specialist orthopaedic surgeon is required.
More from the blogs 
Management of chronic pain, psychosocial factors and yellow flags:
Patients may, quite reasonably, assume that pain is a warning sign that tells us that if something hurts we should not do it. Very often this is true but with back pain it is necessary to work through the pain and to overcome it. There may well be psychosocial barriers to active rehabilitation with prolongation and chronicity as risks. These are called yellow flags. They include:[21]
• Belief that pain and activity are harmful
• Sickness behaviours, such as extended rest
• Social withdrawal
• Emotional problems such as low or negative mood, depression, anxiety and stress
• Problems and/or dissatisfaction at work
• Problems with claims or compensation, or time off work
• Overprotective family; lack of support
• Inappropriate expectations of treatment, including low expectations of active participation in treatment
Although there has been some doubt about the value of this approach, the overall evidence suggests that targeting yellow flags, particularly when they are at high levels, does seem to lead to positive results.[21]
Discuss work and predisposing factors for back pain.
• If heavy lifting is involved, establish whether there was an induction course when techniques were taught.
• Often it is not so much the weight but a large, awkward package that causes injury.
• Seating and posture are often more important nowadays:
• Consider desks, chairs, computer screens and keyboards at work.
• Look at time spent in the car and how comfortable it is and adjustment of the seat and steering wheel.
• Fork lift trucks and large goods vehicles may transmit vibration all day.
• Discuss getting back to work.
• Discuss what improvements may be made to the workplace to reduce the risk of recurrence.
• Give the patient a positive attitude and enthusiasm to recover.
Not everyone finds that those in authority at work are sympathetic or wish to make the environment safer but where work is supportive, the prognosis is better
.
Referral guidance::
Remember, when assessing whether to refer, that motor deficits and bowel or bladder disturbances are more reliable than sensory signs.
• If red flags suggest a serious condition, refer with appropriate urgency. This means immediately for CES.
• If there is progressive, persistent or severe neurological deficit, refer for neurosurgical or orthopaedic assessment, preferably to be seen within one week.
• If pain or disability remain problematic for more than a week or two, consider early referral for physiotherapy or other physical therapy.
• If, after six weeks, sciatica is still disabling and distressing, refer for neurosurgical or orthopaedic assessment, preferably to be seen within three weeks.
• If pain or disability continue to be a problem despite appropriate pharmacotherapy and physical therapy, consider referral to a multidisciplinary back pain service or a chronic pain clinic.
Summary of referral guidance
These can also still be thought of usefully as ‘immediate’, ‘urgent’ and ‘soon’ referrals:
• Immediately:
• CES
• Urgently:
• Serious spinal pathology suspected
• Progressive neurological deficit
• Nerve root pain not resolving after six weeks
•
•
• Soon:
• Inflammatory conditions suspected – eg, ankylosing spondylitis
• Simple back pain and not resuming normal activities after 2-3 months
Physical, cognitive and behavioural therapies:
A Cochrane review – albeit of a small number of trials – found spinal manipulation to be no better than other therapies.[23] However, a study of men and women aged between 18 and 35 years with acute back pain found that chiropractic manipulative therapy in conjunction with standard GP care afforded significant advantages in decreasing pain and improving physical functioning compared to standard care alone.[24] A systematic review of osteopathy for the treatment of chronic low back pain was inconclusive and recommended more research.[25] Manipulation and acupuncture are each discussed in the separate article Complementary and Alternative Medicine. A systematic review of acupuncture found some evidence of benefit but further trials are needed.[26] Traction is not recommended.[27]
The evidence base for the value of physiotherapy per se is surprisingly small. However, recent evidence suggests that its effectiveness can be increased when used in conjunction with a validated tool such as the STarT Back screening tool developed at Keele University This allocates patients to different treatment pathways based on their prognosis (low, medium, or high risk of poor outcome) and is designed for ease of use in primary care
It is important to be active and positive to prevent back pain from becoming chronic. If it does, cognitive and behavioural therapy with relaxation therapy may be helpful. A Cochrane review reported that no type of behavioural therapy is better than any other.There may also be benefit from ‘back schools'[ and from exercise therapy
Neither motor control exercises (designed to improve control and co-ordination of trunk muscles) or graded activity (individually tailored exercises that target specific weak and dysfunctional muscles) are better than any other form of exercise therapy.
Evidence to support the use of peripheral nerve-field stimulation for the management of chronic back pain is limited. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends that any clinician using this treatment should explain the risks and benefits to individual patients, inform the clinical governance lead of their trust and register the patient’s details with the UK Neuromodulation Register.
Complications
• Acute back pain may become chronic. This may be because of failure of active management or behaviour by the patient that predisposes to chronicity rather than cure. Targeted care as described above, with the early recognition and management of yellow flags and the use of a validated tool to tailor management to prognosis, may help to minimise the risk of chronicity.
• Failure to diagnose CES and to take immediate action may lead to long-term neurological damage.
• Other sinister causes of back pain may have a fatal outcome. The prognosis may be improved by early and effective intervention.
The prevention of back pain in the workplace depends on the nature of the work and reference has already been made to the increasing number of office-based rather than manual workers suffering from the condition. There are European guidelines for the prevention of low back pain.[2] These were published in 2004 and there has been surprisingly little in the literature since with respect to primary prevention. There is no evidence for the effectiveness of lumbar supports or education and limited evidence for the efficacy of exercise.[
Much more work has been done on secondary prevention, addressing physical and psychosocial issues, once an episode of back pain has occurred.
Prevention
Once the pain of sciatica passes, there are exercises, stretches and other measures that may prevent it from returning. Your doctor may refer you to a physical therapist to develop a personalized program. Here are some steps you can take in the meantime:
• Practice good posture. Stand up straight with your ears aligned with your shoulders. Align your shoulders with your hips and your buttocks tucked in. Your knees should be bent slightly.
•
• Do abdominal crunches. These exercises strengthen the abdominal muscles that help to support your lower back. Lie with your back on the floor, hands behind your head and knees bent. Press your lower back to the floor. Lift your shoulders up about 10 inches off the floor and then lower them. Don’t go that high if it causes more pain. Repeat 10 to 20 times, once a day.
• Walk/swim. Walking and swimming can help to strengthen your lower back.
• Lift objects safely. Always lift from a squatting position, using your hips and legs to do the heavy work. Never bend over and lift with a straight back.
• Avoid sitting or standing for extended periods. If you sit at work, take regular breaks to stand and walk around. If you must be on your feet, prop one foot on a small block or footrest. Switch feet throughout the day.
• Use proper sleeping posture. Take pressure off your back by sleeping on your side or on your back. Put a pillow under your knees.
• Stretch. Sit in a chair and bend down toward the floor. Stop when you feel just slight discomfort, hold for 30 seconds, then release. Repeat 6 to 8 times.
Avoid wearing high heels. Shoes with heels that are more than 1 1/2 inches high shift your weight forward, throwing the body out of alignment.
Once the pain of sciatica passes (usually within six weeks), these steps may prevent it from returning:
•
•
• Practice good posture. Stand up straight with your ears aligned with your shoulders. Align your shoulders with your hips. Keep your buttocks tucked in and your knees slightly bent.
• Do the exercises shown on my website.
• Walk and/or swim. Walking and swimming can help to strengthen your lower back.
• Lift objects safely. Always lift from a squatting position. Use your hips and legs to do the heavy work.
• Avoid sitting for extended periods. If you sit at work, take regular breaks to stand and walk around.
• Use proper sleeping posture. Sleep on your side or on your back. Put a pillow under your knees.
I know from personal experience that it’s no picnic when you have back pain. But it should get better if you follow this advice.
Back strengthening exercises
1. Lie on the floor on your back. Bend your knees and keep your feet flat on the floor. Squeeze your buttocks and pull your abdomen in toward your back. Your lower back should be pressed flat on the floor. Now raise your buttocks about an inch off the floor. Your lower back will lift slightly off the floor while your upper back remains flat. Hold for a few seconds before relaxing. Repeat 10 times.
2. While lying on the floor on your back, with your head and neck supported, grasp your leg just below your knee. Pull your leg gently toward your chest. Hold for 20 seconds. Repeat on other side. Repeat 10 times.
3. Stand with your feet slightly apart and your hands on the top of your buttocks. While looking up, push your hips forward slightly and gently bend backward. Keep your knees straight. Hold for 10 seconds. Relax. Repeat 10 times.
4. Lie on your back and bend your knees. With your arms crossed in front of your chest, slowly lift your shoulders a few inches off the floor as you pull your abdomen in and tighten your buttocks. Lower your back gently to the ground. Re
